22814

(Continued from Surpriement No, 1428, page 22798.] MOTORS IN AGRICULTURE.*

By the Lonpon CorRESPONDENT OF THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN,

In the double-drum or single-engine system, the en- gine is constructed to work along the side of the field opposite to the self-moving anchor and to pull directiy upon the implement, as in the double-engine system. The engine is made with a single cylinder and spe cially large boiler. The two drums and automatic coiling gear are thrown alternately into and out of cear by one lever so arranged that it is impossible to put both into gear at once. When the drums are re- moved, the engine is suitable for thrashing, hauling, etc., and it can also be used as one of the engines in the double-engine method.

One of the most noteworthy forms of these British nechanically-propelled agricultural implements is a double-engine tackle for burning straw as fuel in countries where it is impossible to procure coal, but where there are large quantities of fuel in the shape of straw, maize, stalks, seeds, In these engines the feeding apparatus, grate-bar arrangement, and baffle plates are made to suit the fuel. The firebox and boiler

etc

have specially large heating surfaces, and there are spark-arresting chimneys. For burning wood or coal

regularly, the apparatus may be removed and an ordi- nary set of firebars substituted for the special bars.

One of Messrs. Fowler’s newest designs is an eight- furrow turnover steam plow, that can be worked by two engines. The implement will plow no less than 40 acres per da

The following is a description of this eight-furrow plow

The annexed diagram will help to make what fol- lows intelligible. The bar, A, is that referred to in

the

preceding paragraph, only instead of being carried

it right angles to the furrows it is placed at an in cline If it were at right angles, then each of the plows, B B, must be coupled to it by a drag link of a different length. There are, as we have said, eight plow these are all coupled to bar A by universal joints at EE. The whole plow is turned round at the end of each bout. revolving round one of the carry- ing wheels, D, on the axle, C, the other wheei being locked by a pawl to prevent it from running back.

Thus the plow comes round on the center shown by the

dotted line; but at the same time that the whole gang comes round, each plow has to be made to turn over on its axis half a circle, in order that the mould-board previously in the air may be put in the ground. If only single mouldboard plows were used. the furrows would alternately be turned right and left instead of all one way The plows are caused to revolve by a sector or portion of a toothed wheel fixed on the uni- versal joint, £. in the diagram. The sector can be seen

7 / / / / / f € r i j ' a) at A in the photograph. A bar parallel to the main bar, f, in liagram, is geared to these sectors, and this r being carried to the right or left at each end of ie field when the plow is being turned, causes the mi-revolution of the drawbar of each plow, and so turns it over. This describes the principle of the ac tion of the plow, but there are numerous details for locking the plow in position, for steering, for varying the depths of the furrow, etc., which it would be im possible to render intelligible without several draw ings and a great deal of letter-press. It may be men- tioned that Messrs. Fowler have spent four years in bringing the plow to its present state of perfection, and it constitutes, as we have said, the most remark able innovation in steam plowing that has been pro

duced for many years 4 PROPOSED SYSTEM OF ELECTRICALLY TOWING CANAL BOATS

A rnaruer ingenious method of relieving the con- gested condition of the canals of New York State has been proposed by Mr. T. D. Davis, of Boston The

Erie Canal in its present condition has a depth of 7 to 9 feet of water. This depth is in nowise to be changed, nor are any other boats than those which are now in use to be employed. Through the middle of the canal a structure is to be built carrying a double track Upon this track electrically-driven motor cars will run, by means of which the boats are to be towed. In order to permit the boats to pass from one side of the canal to the other, a swing bridge will be inserted in the structure at regular intervals The motor-cars are furnished with rail gripping devices to prevent any slipping or lost motion The speed of towing will not be more than 2% to 3 miles an hour, which experience has shown to be most efficient. The boats are furnished with a hinged device at both ends and provided with guide wheels to roll on, and at each side of the outer rail, so that they are kept at a proper distance from the track This car is carried by a second car having wheels running on a series of in- clined rails, the second car being drawn up the in- clined rails to the proper level by means of a hoisting device and a rope. As the submerged car impinges against the bottom of the bhoats it receives their weieht, whereupon it is drawn up the inclined tracks to the upper level in the manner described. As soon

* Specially prepared for the ScrgnNTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT,

SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT, No. 1424. _

as the upper level is reached, the boats float out. Counter-weights can be used to reduce the power necessary to elevate the cars from the lower to the upper level.

It is estimated that a car carrying two boats will make a round trip in 11 minutes, say of 262 boats, and deliver it in 24 hours, or 52,400 during the 200 days of canal navigation. The distance between Buffalo and Troy is 346 miles. A tow of two boats carrying 1,000 tons 3 miles per hour would consume 115 hours for the journey. Adding 22 minutes each for 72 locks, the total time is increased to 142 hours, or less than six days. A tow of two boats would make the trip in about five days. It is estimated that a 100-horse power motor running on rails, and equipped with frictional gearing or rack and pinion to prevent slip and loss of power, will tow four boats 3 miles an hour. The same result could be attained by propellers only with an expendi- ture of at least 400 horse power. The average speed of a barge would not be more than 14 miles per hour, so that 275 hours running time and 36 hours locking time, or in all 311 hours, or thirteen days, would be required.

The system is noteworthy for the fact that the entire bank on both sides of the canal can be utilized for manufacturing purposes or for wharves. The peculiar method of locking avoids the frequent detention of boats for lack of water.

THE AUTOMATONS OF JAQUET-DROZ, FATHER AND SON.*

Few persons in the mechanical world have not heard of the automatons of the famous Neuchatel mechanician of the eighteenth century.

Most people would not know where to find automa- tons of Jaquet-Droz. They are said to be in Russia, in England, and scattered here and there throughout the world. But the most remarkable of these master- pieces are in the possession of Mr. Henri Martin, of Dresden, where they are the admiration of all those who happen to visit Dresden and are able to examine them. ;

According to the information kindly furnished us by M. Martin, the automatons are in good condition and work as well as at the time when Jaquet-Droz exhibited them to the sovereigns of France, Spain, and England, though now they must be put in opera- tion by hand

Pierre Jaquet-Droz, born at La Chaux-de-Fonds in 1721, manifested a special aptitude for study at an early age. His parents sent him to the University to study theology When he had passed his examina- tion as a divinity student he visited his home, and seeing his sister engaged in some watch-work, he as- sisted her in her task. Possessed of remarkable skill, he succeeded to a marvelous degree and finally gave up the ministry. Encouraged by the first results of his exertions, he abandoned the usual processes in order to carry out his own ideas. He added to ordinary clocks the attraction of chimes and musical perform- ances and sometimes of an artificial canary that came from its cage and sang, with such natural movements of the head and wings, that it was difficult to believe it was not alive. He devoted himself particularly to artistic horology and the production of automatons.

One of his clocks went for a very long time without being rewound. This kind of perpetual movement was produced by different metals expanding and contract- ing at the same temperature. They were combined in such a way as to act with uniformity and method on the mechanism of the clock, of which it is impossible to describe the details.

Another clock, without being touched, answered the question, “What time is it?” It must be presumed that the breath of the questioner was sufficient, by a delicate combination, to put the mechanism in move- ment. Stil! another exhibited the hours, the minutes, and the seconds, the center of the dial indicating the course of the sun through the zodiac, the four sea- sons, and the different phases of the moon in perfect accord with its evolution. The dial was lighted at the time of the full moon, and the stars appeared and disappeared at the required intervals. This artificial firmament was covered with clouds if the weather was unpleasant, or lighted if it was clear. As soon as the hour was struck, a chime was heard It played nine different melodies, to which an echo responded. A lady seated in a balcony holding a book in her hand, accompanied the music with gesture and look, from time to time took a pinch of snuff, and bowed to those who opened the glass door of the clock. When the chiming was ended, a canary, standing on the hand of a child, whose+gestures expressed admiration, sang eight different airs. A shepherd came in his turn and played on the flute, and two children danced around. “Suddenly one of the children threw himself on the floor in order to make the other lose his bal- ance, and then turned toward the spectators, pointing at his companion with his finger. Near the shepherd a lamb bleated from time to time, and a dog ap- proached his master, to caress him and to watch over a basket ef apples. If any one touched the fruit, he would bark unti! it was -put back in its place.

All these productions are unfortunately in foreign lands, where they brought higher prices than in France itself. One is in Madrid. Jaquet-Droz visited that city in the latter part of the last century at the in- stance of M. Marechal, Governor of Neuchatel. The following incident occurred on that occasion:

He presented one of his clocks to King Ferdinand VI., who was so delighted that he refunded the ex- penses of the journey and paid in addition 500 louis d'or. The King assembled his courtiers in order to show them his acquisition. Among the automatons

.was a clock, with a shepherd playing on the fiute, and

a dog guarding a basket of fruit. “The dog,” said Jaquet-Droz, “ is as faithful as he is well behaved. Let your Majesty put him to the proof by touching one of the fruits in the basket.” The King endeavored to

* In the current nafober of the Screntrric American will be found a description of the onerative mechanism of the Jaguet-Droz androids. The present article is intended to set forth some of the feats perfor Vv there mechanical marvels. We cannot vouch for all the wonderful things fabled fobevs been done by the Jaquet-Droz, but we give the account for what it

Apri 18, 1908,

take an apple, but the dog immediately threw him. self on his hand, barking so naturally that a hound present in the room responded with all his strength, The courtiers thought that sorcery was at work, and fied precipitately, making the sign of the cross. The King and the Minister of the Marine were the only ones to remuin. The latter asked the shepherd what time it was. As he did not answer, Jaquet-Droz re marked smilingly that he probably did not understand Spanish, and begged his Excellency to address him ip French. The question was repeated in that language, and the shepherd replied immediately. The Minister was frightened, and he, too, hurried away. In con. sequence of this seance, the Neuchatel artist, fearing that he might be arrested by the Inquisition and burned as a sorcerer, begged the King to invite the Grand Inquisitor to be present. Jaquet-Droz took the clock apart in his presence, piece by piece, showing him all the springs and explaining to him the action of the train. Probably the Inquisitor understood liitle or nothing of the matter; nevertheless, he announced the fact publicly that he discovered no magic, «nd that the mechanism was moved entirely by natural means.

Henri Louis, the son of Pierre Jaquet-Droz, was born in La Chaux-de-Fonds, in 1752. The father be: an the instruction of his son, and afterward sent him to Nancy to complete his philosophical, mathemati: al, musical, and drawing studies. He interested ‘he Abbé de Servan, the celebrated geometrician and mathematician, whose friendship was contin: ed through life.

On his return to La Chaux-de-Fonds, Henri Lois participated in his father’s work and soon surpas: od him. Their productions succeeded each other w th rapidity, and the reputation of the artists extend d so far that the Farmer-General, La Reyniére, who hd a maimed son, ordered artificial hands for him. Tie mechanism was so perfect that the son could execute almost any kind of movements for which he had bern incapacitated before. Filled with admiration at tie sight of this work, the celebrated Vaucanson, the first mechanician of France, exclaimed: “Young man, you commenced where I should be satisfied to finish.” This was not the only occasion on which the two artis‘s made arms and limbs for those deprived of them.

Without enumerating all the marvels produced ly the father and son, with the co-operation of ther friend and compatriot Leschot, we will describe the principal pieces. Three automatons, whose perfe- tion exceeded everything which had even been known in this class of work, are the “Young Musician,” the “Draughtsman,” and the “Writer.”

A young woman, seated at the harpsichord, execute | several pieces of music with dexterity, without any person touching the instrument. The draughtsman was seated on a stool, made drawings with a penci sketching them correctly and then shading then From time to time he raised his hand to examine hi work the better, corrected some defect, and blew th dust from the paper.

Henri Louis, having gone to Versailles, exhibite his automatons to the King. The draughtsman, to th amazement of the whole Court, sketched the portrai of the French King with a laurel wreath on his head

It is not wonderful that their fame increase: Jaquet-Droz went over to England; he placed th draughtsman before the King, and soon the hands, o! the automaton were actively at work, but the surppis« of those present was boundless when they beheld no the image of the King of France, which they had ex pected, but that of the English monarch.

Jaquet-Droz, a skillful draughtsman himself, might by means of certain changes introduced in the mechan

ism, have produced this diversity of feature. Of eourse the portraits were not finished productions but presented a general resemblance. We must d«

homage to the genius of the man who, by subtle and remarkable combinations, was able to produce an in strument so perfect, and until then completely un known.

The draughtsman of Jaquet-Droz was not, however the most remarkable of the works created by the inex haustible genius of this artist. Let one judge from the “Writer,” seated before an isolated desk, without contact with any person. He would dip his pen in the inkstand and write, without dictation, slowly it is true, but distinctly and correctly. Each word occu pied a suitable place at the desired distance from the preceding; when a line was finished, he commenced a new one, leaving between them the necessary space The movements of the eyes, and of the arms and hands, were admirably imitated. The “Writer” might even be interrupted. He stopped in the middle of a word, if asked, and wrote another.

The slowness with which the automaton wrote can be comprehended when the letters of the words re quired are far from each other in the alphabet; as in the word vocal, where it was necessary that each letter should cause nearly a complete revolution of the wheel before the following one could be traced. If, on the contrary, the letters were near each other, as in the word abces, the image would write much more rapidly.

What accuracy of calculation! What astonishing complication of springs, wheels, and levers, must have been necessary to cause the writing of each letter ot the alphabet! But this is not the principal thing! It was necessary to raise the hook and stop the letter disk, without touching the mechanism. The means used by Jaquet-Droz for securing this result have re- mained unknown. The courtiers, scientists, and the most skillful mechanicians have vainly sought to penetrate the mystery. It is needless to say that the writer per- formed only in the presence of Jaquet-Droz, which involves the idea of some action exercised by this artist. It has been supposed that he made use of a magnet concealed in his shoes or clothing. This idea was suggested by his habit of walking back and forth, and turning sometimes to one side and sometimes to the other, while the automaton was writing, thus perhaps being able to attract the hook toward the wheel with the aid of a magnet and cause it to return by the same force. The lords of the court endeavored, by means of other magnets of great power concealed in their clothing, to disturb the working of the apparatus by their attitudes and movements, but

Aprt

» vain.

) write, ‘tion by rtist is 4 ith him The su

eceived gid that nnual fa ith grea pys. Sn lled wit he owne onds Ja jlent and he cried Howeve productior bf these ] ean-Davi' his son A’ emarkab! yriter bimilar tc pxcelle nce The th ‘Musician achieved | jme aite pne who mired at Neuchatel works ot] ut less | almo ul Among large clo and }is ¢ ing | ome the n ead goats are herd: sses the | reg The ‘ock herd >lay Th se with the esta! ish 1784 he | at G nev The ity, will, con H:. fa of | he whe he him A’ paired te at tie e ENTIVIC 4 nationale

CON’ Portal ieite ity ical ent “activate of sever ion ors in 30 st ine] its and kee is, of ce pile by authors amber i the inte iaken f the con will kee properly open ai caves. Elster 192. NATI R. Blot port of the vel 21, p. 1 wires ji by an waves ' other | chouc the sp caouteh hature pessibl X-rays the otl eous in the an which out by Stokes. upon t the X- duced drops | nite pi —R. E INFL —T. [ tate a “hey | of Lei an eb windo

1908,

hrew him. t a hound S strength, work, and Pross. The e the only herd what et-Droz re inderst and ss him ip language, ® Minister , In Con. it, fearing ition and invite the ; took the . Show ng the action tood liitle nnounced agic, and y natural

roz, was 1er bevan it him to ematical, sted the ‘ian and ‘ontini ed

Ti Lois jurpas: od ner with extend od who had im. Te execute lad been | at tre the first lan, you 1.” This ) artists hem. uced ly of ther ribe the perfe- known in,” the

xecute ut any htsma penci then ine hi ew th

hibite to th ortrai ; head rease! od the nds, o! Irpmis« ic no @d ex

might echan . Of "tions ist dk e and an in y un

vever inex from thout en in ly it occu n the enced pace. and hight le of

can 3 re is in each n of ced. ther, nore

hing lave r ot ing! tter ANS re- 10st rate per- ich his fa dea ‘th, « to lus the to ort yer of ut

Apert 18, 1908.

yain. The automaton wrote with the same accu- cy. The writer is still in existence. It continues write, provided the hook and wheel are kept in ‘ion by the hand. The motive force used by the rtist is a secret, which unfortunately has been buried ith him.

=. supposition of a concealed magnet has perhaps eived credence from the following anecdote: It is jd that Jaquet-Droz, on visiting with a friend, the nnual fair at Neuchatel, stopped for a long time and ith great interest before the showcase of a maker of Small metal ducks were swimming in a basin lied with water, and following all the movements of he owner's hands. On returning to La Chaux-de- onds Jaquet-Droz did not appear as usual. He was jlent and pensive, absorbed in deep reflection. Finally e cried out: “I have it! I have it!”

However this may be, it may be said that no other roductions of the kind have ever equaled the work f these remarkable men. Thus, one of their pupils, ean-David Maillardet of Fontaines, who, as well as Augustus, acquired great renown by producing endeavored to imitate the producing an automaton

js so! emarkable automatons, He succeeded in

yriter

jmilar to the model, but very far from its degree of xcellence.

The three masterpieces of the Jaquet-Droz—the ‘Musician,” the “Draughtsman,” and the “Writer’— chieved immense success throughout Europe. A long ime afterward, notwithstanding the absence of the ne who had caused them to move, they were ad- nired at the Paris Exposition of 1825, and later at jeuchatel. Because of the great reputation of these

yorks other creations of the same artists, as ingenious, ss demonstrativ2 in appearance, have remained unknown. Am ong those ignored by the public, we may cite a clock representing a rustic scene. A peasant nd }is donkey have been to market, and are return- ing | ome with a load of flour. A cow is grazing in adow, with her calf gamboling around her. The are climbing the rocks, a shepherd and shep- sses form a group at the entrance of a grotto. In the | \reground is a garden, with an aviary of birds. ocks are bleating, the birds chirping, the shep- herd laying on a flute, and the shepherdesses dancing. Th severe climate of the mountains did not agree with the health of the younger Jaquet-Droz, and he estal ished himself at London. But not long after, in 1784 he took up his residence with his friend Leschot, neva. His generosity was equal to his genius. The ity, grateful for many touching acts of his good- ‘onferred upon him the freedom of the city. H. father also left La Chaux-de-Fonds on account

of hs health. He established his domicile at Bienne, whe he died in 1790. The son did not long survive him Afflicted with a pulmonary complaint, he re- pair 1 to Naples, and died there the following year, at te early age of 39 years.—Translated for the Sc1- ENTI- IC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT, from the Revue Inter-

nationale de l’Horlogerie.

CONTEMPORARY ELECTRICAL SCIENCE.*

PorTABLE Rapio-Activity ApPpARATUS.—J. Elster and H. Geitel describe their method of studying the radio- activity of the atmosphere in places removed from physical or meteorological laboratories. In these meas- urements it is necessary to maintain the body to be “activated” for several hours at a negative potential of several thousand volts. To save the use of an in- duciion coil or influence machine for this purpose, the authors substitute a dry pile of 6,000 couples arranged in 30 sets of 75 volts each, strung on ebonite rods, and inclosed in a metal case. When the pile is not in use. its discharge is retarded by disconnecting the sets and keeping the apparatus in a warm and dry room. It is, of course, necessary to control the potential of the pil by means of a high-potential electroscope. The authors use a Braun electroscope, but provide it with amber insulation and with an arrangement for drying the interior by means of sodium. A current cannot be laken from the pile, its only function being to keep the conductor at a potential of —2,000 volts. The pile will keep in good working order for several years if properly treated. It has been found satisfactory in the open air as well as in the moist air of cellars and caves. It can easily be renewed when worn out.— Elster and Geitel, Physikal. Zeitschr., November 15, 1902.

NATURE OF RONTGEN Rays.—In a supplementary note R. Blondlot quotes some further experiments in sup- port of his conclusion that X-rays are propagated with the velocity of light (see The Electrician, November 21, p. 189). To avoid brush discharges, he inclosed the wires in gutta percha and caoutchouc, and verified by an interference method that the velocity of the Waves was not thereby perceptibly lessened. If, on the other hand, the transmission wires encased in caout- choue were bound together over a length of 40 cm., the speed of the waves, transmitted mainly by the caoutchouc, was perceptibly lessened. As regards the nature of X-rays, the author points out that only two pessible theories remain, one of them regarding the X-rays as light rays of very small wave-length, and the other regarding them as consisting of instantan- eous impulses produced by the impact of electrons upon the anti-cathode. The latter is the true explanation, which agrees with all the facts. It has been worked out by Stokes, Wiechert, and Thomson. Stokes, the X-rays are produced by a rain of electrons upon the anti-cathode. Carrying the parallel further, the X-rays might be likened to the sound waves pro- duced by rain drops on impact, and the patter of rain drops on a roof, which does not produce a note of defi- nite pitch (wave-length), is their acoustic equivalent. —R. Blondlot, Comptes Rendus, November 10, 1902.

INFLUENCE OF METALLIC ScREENS Upon Catuope Rays. —T. Des Coudres shows that when cathode rays pene- tfate a thin metallic membrane like a Lenard “window”

“hey lose in speed. He confirms the early experiments

of Leithauser by means of an apparatus consisting of an ebonite vacuum tube, provided with a removable window, an observation space, and a semi-circular pin-

* Compiled by E. E, Fournier d‘Albe in the Electrician,

According to °

SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT, No.

hole camera capable of exhaustion. The whole appar- atus is surrounded by a magnetizing coil whose field is at right angles to the direction of the cathode rays. The camera had a series of pinholes, which transmitted rays arriving from different directions. It was found that the intensity of the Lenard rays does not diminish laterally in conformity with the cosine law, but much more rapidly. Magnetism has the effect of draw- ing out the pencil corresponding to each pinhole into a spectrum, whose displacement indicates the slowness, and whose length indicates the composite character of the pencil. The thinner the aluminium foil constituting the window, the less are the rays deviated or dispersed. It is evident that they have a definite direction within the metal. Even cathode rays proceeding at half the velocity of light suffer a reduction of speed, amounting to 10 per cent, when the foil is 0.01 mm. thick.—T. Des Coudres, Physik. Zeitschr., November 15, 1902.

Puoro-ELectric Porasstum CELLsS.—If a potassium cell of the type described by Elster and Geitel is placed in a circuit so that the potassium electrode is the cathode, then the illumination of the cathode gives rise to a current whose intensity depends upon the strength and color of the illumination as well as the amount of E. M. F. in the circuit. E. von Schweidler has made a special study of the latter, and has found that the curve representing the variation between the photo- electric current and the E. M. F. is not a straight line, but that it has a bend at a certain point, such that be- low that point the current increases more slowly, and above the point more rapidly, than the E. M. F. He shows that whatever the exact relation between cur- rent and E. M. F. may be for one color of the spectrum, it is not necessarily the same for any other color. For E. M. F.’s below 100 volts the effect of the red and yellow rays is considerable in comparison with that of the white and blue rays. But as the E. M. F. in- creases to say 200 volts the efficiency of the blue rays in- creases more rapidly than that of the red and yellow rays. Thus, if the blue and red rays are both put at unity for 100 volts, the relative currents at 200 volts will be 4.7 and 4.1 respectively. The blue rays more rapidly increase their power of liberating electrons at the higher voltages than do the red rays.—E. von Schweidler, Physikal. Zeitschr., November 15, 1902.

New Seventum Cevtit.—In connection with the work of Coblyn (see The Electrician, November 14), M. Dussaud describes a new type of selenium cell for elec- tric vision at a distance. The transmitter consists of a plane non-conducting surface divided into equal squares of 5 cm. side. In each of these is placed a coil formed of an insulating core, upon which are wound two thin copper wires covered with a layer of selenium prepared in such a manner as to give it the maximum sensitiveness, as detailed in the author's previous work. One of these wires is traversed by a feeble current of the order of a telephone current. When the selenium is illuminated it acquires a con- ductivity varying with the degree of brightness, and thus communicates some of the current to the second wire. This works a relay and brings into action a lighting circuit containing an incandescent lamp at the receiving station. At the latter there is another surface divided into squares, and each square contains an incandescent lamp. These lamps therefore repro- duce the intensity of illumination at the origin. The author claims that by this process of analysis and re- combination images may be reproduced at a great dis- tance.—Dussaud, Comptes Rendus, November 10, 1902.

ConpvucTIVITY OF ELECTROLYTES.—The work of Bous- field and Lowry is supplemented by that of J. Kunz. After fruitless experiments with superfused electro- lytes, the author confined himself to concentrated solu- tions of sulphuric acid, caustic soda and calcium chloride with very low melting points. With a 45 to 70 per cent solution of H.SO,, temperatures below —70 deg. could be attained and measured by means of a Con- stantan iron couple. With a 19.1 per cent solution, the conductivity in C. G. S. units fell from 519 kK 10—% at v deg. 194 x 10—° at— 18.4 deg. With a more concen- trated solution (32 per cent) a _ temperature as low as — 44.6 deg. could be attained be- fore freezing, and at that point the conduc- tivity was 66 x 10—* units. The lowest temperature was attained with a percentage of 60.9; this was —69.9 deg., and the conductivity went down to 1.31 X 10 units. But an even smaller conductivity was attained with 63.76 per cent, being 0.66 x 10—* units at —65.9 deg. This solution had a conductivity of 193 x 10 units at 0 deg. In any case, it is*quite clear that the conductivities do not converge to a zero at —39 deg., as Kohlrausch supposed, but more likely at the abso- lute zero, thus representing the exact reverse of the case of the pure metals, whose resistance converges to zero at the same point.—J. Kunz, Comptes Rendus, November 10, 1902.

VeLociry or R6ntcGEN Rays.—R. Blondlot has proved, by means of a method resembling Rémer’s method for the velocity of light, that the velocity of Réntgen rays is of the same order as the velocity of Hertzian waves. —R. Blondlot, Comptes Rendus, October 27, 1902.

Haut Errect ann TuHermo-Evectrric Power.—E. van Aubel has confirmed Ettingshausen and Nernst’s rela- tion between the Hall effect and the thermo-electric properties of metals. According to E. Becquerel, an al- loy containing 10 parts of bismuth and one part of an- timony has a thermo-electric power much above that of pure bismuth, and so has a fused mixture of equal parts of bismuth and sulphide of bismuth. The author studied an alloy such as specified, containing 91.65 per cent of bismuth and a mixture containing 95.64 per cent of bismuth. The Hall’ effect in pure bismuth, that in the alloy, and that in the mixture, stand in the ratio of 2.15 : 5.89: 6.57. We are thus provided with two additional bodies giving a negative Hall coefficient, but numerically double or treble the coefficient given by pure bismuth, hitherto the highest coefficient ob- served. The mixture of bismuth and its sulphide is of special interest, owing to its high thermo-electric power. The author has also studied the Hall effect at the tem- perature of liquid air. If the Hall effect observed at the ordinary temperature is 2.35, the Hall effect ob served at the temperature of liquid air is 8.76, result- ing, therefore, in a further trebling of the Hall effect.

1424. 22815

The author is experimenting further with various mix- tures, and studying their resistance and other electric and magnetic properties.—E. van Aubel, Comptes Ren- dus, November 10, 1902.

Evectric Ercuine or ALLoys.—In the testing of al- loys for industrial purposes, the specimens are pol- ished and exposed to a tempering flame. The different oxidizing action on the various constituents brings out the crystalline structure of the alloy and gives valuable hints concerning its mechanical properties. The meth- od has been minutely studied by Behrens. Instead of tempering, the metals may also be etched in acids, but this method has various disadvantages owing to gas bubbles and the like. These difficulties have been re- moved in an electrolytic method devised by A. H. Sirks. The specimen is made the anode in an electro- lytic cell, with copper as a cathode. The current is furnished by a battery of accumulators having a termi- nal voltage of 4 volts. The electrolyte used is water with six drops of dilute sulphuric acid per 100 cubic em. In this manner the formation of basic metallic deposits is avoided. Since the-etchings are much more pronounced in this method than in the simple acid etching, it is not necessary to polish the specimens Smooth filing suffices. It is possible to etch out indi- vidual crystals of the alloy, showing a definite and in- variable proportion of the constituents. These crystals are the product of a chemical reaction between the con- stituents which has a profound influence upon the mechanical properties of the alloy.—A. H. Sirks, Proc. Roy. Akad., Amsterdam, September 27, 1902

ConpvuctTion OF Evectriciry 1x FLAmMes.—P. Lenard describes a phenomenon he calls “visible wandering of ions in flames,” and which does not appear to have been hitherto observed. A Bunsen flame is placed in a hori- zontal electric field. If now a bead of some salt is brought into the flame, as for spectrum analysis, it is seen that the comet-shaped strip of luminous vapor runs slantingly toward the negative electrode. The angle of slant can be 45 deg. or more. It is made very evi- dent by charging and discharging the plates. If the negative plate is at some distance from the flame, the metallic vapor continues its path sideways, projecting beyond the flame. The best source of electricity is a battery of accumulators giving an E. M. F. of 2,000 volts. It is a curious fact that the “wandering” only sets in when the bead is brought into the interior of the flame. In the outer mantle the vapor ascends vet tically. The wandering of the ions of sodium silicate is greatly increased by bringing a minute quantity of hydrochloric acid into the flame, the change in one case being from 8 deg. to 30 deg. The increased wan- dering is always accompanied by an increase in the conductivity of the flame. A calculation gives for the radius of the ion the value 6.7 x 10—% mm., a value of about 10 times the size of an atom.—P. Lenard, Ann. der. Physik., No. 11, 1902.

REFINING GOLD BY ELECTROLYSIS.

PRACTICALLY all the gold produced by the mines of the world contains more or less silver, some of it a relatively large amount. Silver bullion containing a considerable amount of gold offers no unusual prob- lem in metallurgy, but gold containing small amounts of silver and other impurities in its refining often costs more than the value of the substances separated from the gold.

The problem of refining gold bullion of this character has been solved by electrolysis and this method is now almost exclusively in use in the refineries of the coun- try. Asa result only the refined gold is now shipped to the mints and the consequent scarcity of silver has proven an inconvenience in the refining of gold con- taining small amounts of silver and other substances. By the acid method the gold bullion is alloyed with two and one-third ‘times its weight of silver, and this after granulation is boiled in nitric or sulphuric acid. As a result of the small amount of silver sent to the mints, the same silver has to be employed over and over in the process, causing an unusual expense for acid. If the silver arrived at the mint in about the necessary proportion to the gold—that is two and one third times as many ounces of silver as ounces of gold —the refining process would be less expensive

The electrolytic process as practised at the United States mint at Philadelphia, Pa., is described by D K. Tuttle, melter and refiner at that institution, in Electro-chemical Industry, as follows:

The only process for directly refining gold electro- lytically that is known to have been reduced to prac tice is that patented by Dr. Emil Wohlwill, Hamburg, Germany.

The feature protected by patent is the electrolyte. This is composed of gold chloride solution rather strongly impregnated with free hydrochloric acid, and it is in this latter point that the significance of the in- vention lies. If a gold anode be placed in a neutral or only slightly acid solution of gold chloride, opposed by a suitable cathode, gold will be deposited by an electric current, but little or no gold will be dissolved from the anode. Free chlorine is given off: a result not to have been anticipated since chlorine is an active solvent for gold. Upon the addition of free hydro- chloric acid to the bath, a point is reached where the chlorine at the anode is suppressed and gold passes into solution, equivalent for equivalent, to that deposited. The strength of the electrolyte is easily maintained by such additions of gold chloride from time to time as will be equivalent to the copper, platinum, etc., dis- solved from the anode and not deposited on the ca- thode. The operation is continuous until the solution becomes highly charged with impurities.

In the operation of the process the apparatus con- sists of first: A dynamo. which, when run at its nor mal capacity, requires 5 H. P. and furnishes a current of 600 amperes at six volts. The machine having been designed with a view to experimental work, a rheostat in the field winding enables us to regulate the current between 100 and 600 amperes.

Second: The cells, which are of white porcelain, are 15 inches long by 11 inches wide and 8 inches deep. These are filled with a prepared solution of gold tri- chloride containing 30 grammes of gold per liter (3 8-10 Troy ounces per gallon), the depth of the solution be- ing such as not to entirely submerge the anodes. In

22816

each of these cells are suspended twelve anodes and thirteen cathodes, in multiple. The anodes are 6 inches in length, 3 inches wide and ™% inch thick. The corresponding cathodes are of fine gold and rolled down to one hundredth of an inch in thickness. The dis- tance between anode and cathode is 1% inches. In our present working, seven cells are placed end to end on a bed of sand, underlying which is a series of steam pipes by which the temperature of the bath may be raised and maintained at any desired degree. At pres- ent our cells are kept at from 50 deg. to 55 deg. C. The increased temperature serves to reduce the voltage required, and at the same time to diminish the amount of free acid necessary to suppress evolution of chlorine at the anodes

Circulation of the electrolyte by mechanical means is necessary to secure uniform disintegration of the anode and deposition of the gold.

The seven cells in use are connected up, in series, with the dynamo, which is at present regulated to fur- nish 100 amperes. The tension between the terminals of the seven cells varies from four and a half to five volts, dependent upon temperature, strength of solu- tion, ete

The chemical equivalent of gold is very high and the electromotive force required for the deposition of gold is very low, so that the power necessary for run- ning the plant is insignificant With only seven ceils of our plant in operation, we are refining about 5,000 ounces per week, with the expenditure of about 1 horse power. One attendant suffices to manage the work, with the occasional assistance of a second workman.

The cost of hydrochloric acid in the bath is 20 cents per 1,000 ounces of deposited gold. We can increase our refining capacity, to 50,000 ounces per week with our present plant.

Besides the advantage the process offers for the refining of gold with an insignificant consumption of acid, with little labor and small expenditure of power, an important one should be mentioned, viz., the re- covery of any platinum present in the bullion. This dissolves, but is not deposited with the gold. When the electrolyte becomes sufficiently charged with plati- num, the gold is first precipitated by sulphur dioxide and removed. Then the platinum remaining in solu- tion is separated as ammonium platinum chloride. Last- ly, the copper is recovered by passing the wash waters over iron scrap

With these advantages to its credit, the process has limitations which are serious ones. Any silver in the anodes will, of course, be converted into soluble chlor- ide, and if the percentage be smal! will fall to the bot- tom of the containing tank as “slimes.” But if the amount of silver exceed 5 per cent, the chloride tends to adhere to the anode, as a crust, which must be me- chanically removed

Furthermore, any considerable quantity of copper present in the bullion to be treated is undesirable, since the electrolyte, in that case, must be renewed inconveniently often

There seems to be reason to think that any elec- trolytic process for parting and refining gold will not have the same success in this country in our indus- trial plants as it met in Europe. The Australian, South African and Hong Kong native gold is very much purer than even our California nuggets, and they were very much better than our recent finds in Alaska.

Hong Kong gold is reported as containing 0.975 gold, 0.020 silver, 0.0005 platinum, 0.0005 iridium.

Some recent consignments of Klondike gold to this mint varied from 0.776 gold to 0.834 gold, 0.219 silver to 0.161 silver, with no showing of platinum or iridium in the electrolyte

Such bullion can only be successfully treated by the Wohlwill process when blended with a higher-grade gold. We prefer not to treat bullion having a fineness of less than 0.940 gold

Again, the government conditions for the gold pro- ducer here are much more favorable than in other countries. At any United States mint or assay office the depositor is entitled to receive promptly upon assay of his bullion all the gold it contains in the form of gold coin or draft on the treasury, less some slight charges. If the amount of the deposit be large, he may even receive an advance of 80 per cent on its approxi- mate value at the time of making the deposit. Under these circumstances the question of interest becomes an important item with the industrial establishments. With a given output per diem, several times the value will be locked up in solutions, anodes, cathodes and material in various stages of leaching, melting, etc.

Fie. 1.—ELECTRIC GENERATOR.

SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT, No. 1494.

ELECTRIC GENERATOR FOR LIGHTING RESIDENCE.

A sIMPLE generator providing the power required in a single detached residence is a much-desired com- modity. It is only within the last few years, since the introduction of low-power oil engines, that such installations, satisfying the conditions of simplicity and economy, have become practicable.

Last summer the Messrs. Mildé & Co. put up such an electric generator in a villa on the coast of France. This installation served for the lighting of the villa and for a number of domestic purposes, giving every

Apri 18, 19% ‘ae

tion, $220. Switchboard, with cost of packing, ¢ and installation, $80. Total, $1,055 for the plant, installation, ete. To this add the cost of . tures, say $126. The initial cost in all is therefg HE round numbers, $1,200. yessel With the above-described plant the consumptig 530 fe oil, when 45 lamps of 10 candle power are burn ling ©} one-third gallon per hour. destin In the villa to which reference was made aboyegmee? © electric installation has been put up which offers first greater advantages than those enumerated. Thigggp0U®' stallation provides for the propulsion of an electympt and omnibus with ten seats, carrying a 4 horse power oe ” ide cé stem, W p’s sid light Il not been elect keep t ut the are at he the hes, °9 inch sti el cv iin nds pe the fol

THE

eng

Fie. 3.—OMNIBUS PLACED IN SHED, PROVIDING POWER FOR LIGHTING VILLA.

satisfaction. At the same time, by a peculiar arrange- ment it furnished the power for an automobile, of which more below.

The generator consists (Fig. 1) of an oil engine directly connected to a two pole dynamo. It is thor- oughly well made, and the firm supplies such genera- tors in five sizes, giving 1%, 3, 414, 6 and 8 horse power respectively with an angular velocity of 1,500 revolu- tions per minute. The dynamos give 1.1, 1.65, 2.2, 3.3 and 4.4 kilowatts respectively at 110 volts, sufficieht for lighting 20, 30, 40, 60 and 80 lamps of 16 candle power or 30, 45, 60, 90, and 120 lamps of 10 candle power. The total weight of the five models is 285, 465, 478, 741 and 770 pounds respectively. The space occupied by the generator is very small. The plant may be sup- plemented by a battery of accumulators, but the gen- erator is capable of producing an exceedingly constant voltage, as an electric regulator controls the charge of the oil engine and preserves a constant difference of potential at the terminals of the dynamo. A switch- board of the simplest possible construction is placed in the engine room. It comprises a bipolar contact breaker, a series of cutouts, an exciting rheostat, and cell switches for the accumulators. The leads in the building are chosen so as to match the decorations of the rooms, and are supported on little bone insula- tors. It is found that this arrangement, if carefully carried out, is quite satisfactory for currents at 110 volts.

The cost of such an installation is comparatively low. In the case of a 3 horse power generator, for instance, capable of lighting 45 lamps of 10 candle power, the expenses would be about as follows:

Three horse power (1,650 kilowatt) generator with all accessories (water tank, oil tank, pipes, ett.),. cart- ing and installation, $490. Battery of 60 accumulators of the type Heinz, of 36 ampere hours, with installa-

Fie. 2.—ELECTRIC

OMNIBUS CARRYING

erator and a battery of 40 accumulators of 150 an hours capacity. This omnibus is used for driving di ing the day, while at night it provides the power f the electric lighting of the villa and for various dome tic work, such as pumping, heating, cooking, etc. 0 second illustration shows the omnibus, with the gend ator and the battery displayed. Our last figure sho the automobile placed in its shed, connected up to switchboard and ready to supply the power for lightin etc., in the villa close by. This arrangement allows continual use of the automobile; in the day for travé ing, at night for lighting and other purposes.

Electric carriages are well known for their smool working. When the omnibus is in motion, the gene tor is always at full speed. If the energy produced greater than needed, the surplus is charged into t accumulators; going uphill, when the generator do not supply sufficient energy, the power stored in t accumulators is added to that from the dynamo. the case quoted an omnibus seating ten persons, costi $3,600, has traveled from Paris to the sea, a distance 130 miles, and has for two months provided for t lighting of 40 lamps of 10 candle power, serving at ft same time for daily journeys of considerable lenzt The total expense for lubricating and fuel oil has nd exceeded $1.50 per day. Compared with other automéd biles, this omnibus, carrying a battery of 990 pound and a generator of 330 pounds, appears to considerab advantage. For its weight does not exceed that 0 other electric carriages, and it is capable of coveérin 150 miles in a day, doing its 15 miles per hour, withow exhausting the battery.

This installation, put up by Messrs. Mildé & Co., must be of considerable interest to all who want an electri( lighting plant or lighting and propulsion on economical and satisfactory lines.

lessure 0 forv d the ich oth Iw, Sch right Pdiate haller rermec ptant ipbuil lasgow The t bur of lea. rmer ; re a prov The “ Ddern ots.—

GENERATOR AND ACCUMULATOR.

18, 1

icking, for the he cost is theref,

onsum pti are burni

nade aboy hich offers ited. This f an elect rse power

[ILLA.

if 150 an ' driving d he power f arious dom ing, etc. 0 th the gen figure sho cted up to ' for lighti ent allows iy for trav es. their smoo , the gene produced ged into t nerator « tored in t dynamo. sons, costi a distance ided for t rving at t ‘able lenzt | oil has n her autom 990 poun considerabl eed that of covering our, withouw

& Co., mus an electri( | economia

—

Aprit 18, 1908.

THE ORIENT PACIFIC LINER “ORONTES.”

ye “Orontes” was launched on May 10 last. She is vessel of 15,450 tons displacement at the load line, 530 feet long and 58 feet 3 inches wide. Her pro- ling engiaes are of 10,000 effective horse power. She destined for the mail and passenger service be- een England and Australia, and is at present upon - first return voyage. She has, besides a certain ount of third-class accommodation, room for 323 t and second-class passengers, who are provided for the style usual in all modern liners. Some of the ide cabins are, moreover, on the tandem, or Bibby, which providing for access to port-holes in the

stem

p’s side, permits of a direct supply of fresh air and nligh This is an advantage which old travelers 1] not be slow to appreciate. Especial attention

n given throughout to this question of ventilat- electric fans being arranged in suitable positions the air in motion. More need not be said ut the “hotel” parts of the ship, particularly as it present concerned with her main engines.

he engines are of 5,000 horse power each: They are

SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT No.

NOTES ON THE CONTACT PROCESS OF MAKING SULPHURIC ACID.

In a recent number of the Zeits. angew. Chem., G. Keppeler publishes a preliminary communication of theoretical communications to be followed by the re- sults of his experimental investigations.

The reaction of 2SO, + O,— 2SO0, proceeds extremely slowly, end the duty of a contact-substance is to quicken it, by means of intermediate reactions, which go on with greater rapidity. All such substances must be capable of existing in two conditions of oxidation, and must fulfill besides the condition that, at the same temperature at which the higher oxide is reduced by sulphur dioxide, the reduced substance must be capable of rapidly becoming oxidized by the aid of atmospheric oxygen. In some cases, as for instance with oxide of iron, there is the possibility of the formation of sul- phate to be considered. Here the mechanism of disso- ciation comes in. If the formation of SO, takes place at a temperature at which iron sulphate is undis- sociated, sulphate will be formed until the whole of the oxide is converted into sulphate, and the contact action will cease. But-if the temperature be raised

1424, 22817

by successive oxidation and reduction, and these re- actions occur with enormous velocity at temperatures below 450 deg. C. Moreover, platinum possesses the advantage of not being attacked by the sulphuric anhy- dride formed. The high reaction-velocity might be thought a disadvantage, as the resulting rise of tem- perature is so great; but dilution of the reacting gases and appropriate cooling have completely overcome this. The Mannheim works use ferric oxide, the reduc- tion of which, and the oxidation of the lower oxide, occur readily at comparatively low temperature; but the formation of ferric sulphate is here to be feared. The author’s experiments have shown that the disso- ciation-pressure of ferric sulphate is imperceptible at 400 deg. C., but very considérabie at 500 deg. C. The process must be worked below 500 deg. C., but that is rendered quite practicable by the dilution of the burner-gases, which under the patent contain only 2 to 3 per cent of sulphur dioxide, and hence will react at temperatures at which the dissociation-pressure of ferric sulphate is very low.

HOW TO MAKE SOAP POWDER.

the quadruple-expansion type, having cylinders 274 hes, 29 inches, 56 inches, and 80 inches diameter by above that at which dissociation of the sulphate begins, Tue life of a small soap boiler is nowadays not an inch stroke. They are supplied with steam by six then to any given temperature there will correspond easy one, and all that can be done to encourage his el cylindrical boilers working at a pressure of 215 a maximum SO,-pressure of dissociation, just as to any business and maintain his position should be willingly nds per square inch. The cylinders are arranged given temperature there corresponds a maximum undertaken, especially since the smaller concerns really the following order: High-pressure, forward, low- vapor-pressure of water; and if the dilution of the train the best soap boilers and foremen for the bigger =~ i, P a sy i Se | ’ } , + \ i

'H cs)

fessure, second intermediate, first intermediate. The © forward cranks are at right angles to each other, d the two after cranks are also at right angles to ch other; but the engines being balanced on the Yar- iw, Schlick & Tweedy system, the forward pair is not right angles to the after pair, but at an inter- Pdiate angle arrived at by calculation. The two haller cylinders have piston valves, and the second termediate and low have flat valves, with Joy’s as- ptant cylinders. These were built by the Fairfield inbuilding and Engineering Company, Limited, of lasgow, from whose yard the vessel was launched. The boilers, as we have said, are six in number. bur of them are single and the other two double- ed. They are all 16 feet 6 inches in diameter, the rmer 11 feet and the latter 18 feet 8 inches long here are four furnaces in each front, and they are provided with Howden’s forced draft system.

The “Orontes” is not a very fast vessel according to Ddern ideas, her trial speed having been under 18% ots—The Engineer.

entering SO, be so great that the pressure of the SO, formed cannot rise above this maximum, reaction will go on continuously, even though the iron oxide be par- tially converted into sulphate (or the sulphate be not completely dissociated). Thus if burner gases contain 8 per cent of SO, (and thus can yield 8 per cent of SO, by volume), reaction will proceed at any temperature above that at which the maximum pressure of disso- ciation of iron sulphate is 8-100 of an atmosphere— temperatures far below that at which it is completely dissociated. The temperature limits for the reaction of a given contact-substance which the above described conditions determine, are of course further restricted by the possible dissociation of the sulphuric anhydride formed. which Knietsch has shown to occur to an extent injurious to the process at temperatures above 500 deg. C.

Platinum possesses in the highest degree the quali- ties necessary in a contact-substance. It is highly probable, especially from the results of Engler and Wohler (Zeits, anorg. Chem., 29, 1) that platinum acts

5,000 HORSE POWER QUADRUPLE-EXPANSION ENGINES OF THE STEAMER “ORONTES.”

works. The routine work of the large concerns sel- dom gives a man a chance to get to know the whole business thoroughly, whereas a man has to put his hand to everything where only a few are employed. The subdivision of labor has its advantages, but draw- backs are always closely associated with advantages, and this is nowhere more the case than in training a soap-maker in a small or large concern. Our best men and their best inventions came from the lower ranks of the industrial scale, and only their association with clever business men brought them to the top of the profession.

But to return to soap powder making without the advantages of a mill, as used ‘in the larger factories, it may at once be pointed out that smaller soap works generally use the days when soap boiling is not car- ried on for the making of soap powder. This spare time can thus be well occupied, and the production re- quires no difficult operation or an expensive plant. It is comparatively easy, and the whole performance needs really nothing beyond a heating pan and several per

22818

forated sieves with differently sized meshes. Economic makers can make their own sieves without much trou- ble by nailing four pieces of board together so that they form a frame, and over this frame is stretched wire netting of such kind as may prove useful for the particular purpose.

The raw materials of which soap powder is made are soap and soda, to which ingredients an addition of tal- cum or water-glass can be made, if desired, these ma- terials proving very useful as a filling. An excellent soap powder has been made of 20 parts of crystallized soda, 5 parts of dark yellow soap (resin curd) and 1 part of ordinary soft soap. At first the two last-men- tioned are placed in a pan, then half the required quan- tity of soda is added, and the whole is treated. Here it must be mentioned that the dark yellow curd soap, which is very resinous, has to be cut in small pieces before placing the quantity into the pan. The heating process must continue very slowly, and the material has to be crutched continually until the whole of the substance has been thoroughly melted. Care must be taken that the heating process does not reach the boil- ing point. The fire underneath the pan must now be extinguished, and then the remaining half of the crys- tallized soda is added to be crutched with the molten ingredients, until the whole substance has become liq-

uid The liquefaction is assisted by the remaining heat of the first heated material and the pan. The slow cooling facilitates the productive process by

thickening the mass, and when the soda has been ab- sorbed, the whole has become fairly thick. With occa- sional stirring of the thickened liquid, the mass is left for a little while longer, and when the proper moment has arrived the material contained in the pan is spread on sheets of thin iron, and these are removed to a cool room, where after the first cooling they must be turned over by means of a shovel, and the turning process has to be repeated at short intervals until the mate- rial has quite cooled down and the mixture is thor- oughly broken The soap is now in a very friable condition, and the time has now come to make it into powder, for which rubbed through the wire netting or the perforated sieves. Generally the rubbed through a coarse sieve, and then until it has reached the required powder Some of the best soap powders are coarse, but other manufacturers making an equally good article prefer the finer powder, which requires a little more work, since it has to go through three sieves, whereas the coarse powder can do with one or at most two treatments, But this is after all a matter of local requirements or personal taste.

The powder obtained from the above-mentioned in gredients is fine and yellow colored, and it has all the qualities needed for a good sale. Instead of the dark vellow white stock soap can also be used, and this makes only a little difference in the coloring. But soap can be used, and the same color

purpose it is soap is first

through finer ones, condition of the

soa"

stock

again whit

obtained by the use of palm oil, or other coloring in- gredients, as these materials are used for giving the toilet soaps their manifold different hues. Many makers state that this process is too expensive, and

not only swallows up all the profit, but some of the color materials influence the soap and not to its ad- vantage

Soft soap is only used in the making of the powder to make the powder by the addition more soft and easier soluble, and for this reason the quantity to be used varies a little and different manufacturers believe to have a secret by adding different quantities of this material As a general statement, it may be given that the quantity of soft soap for the making of soap powder should not overstep the proportion of one to three, compared with the quantity of hard soap; any excess in this direction would frustrate the desires of the maker, and land him with a product which has become smeary and moist, forming into balls and lumping together in bags or cases, to become discol- ored and useless. It is best to stick to the proportion us given, five parts of hard and one part of soft soap, when the produced powder will be reliable and stable and not form into balls, even if the material is kept in store for a good long while

This point is of special importance, since soap pow- der is mostly sold in weighed-out packages of one and a half pound Most manufacturers will admit that loose soap powder forms only a small part of the quantities produced, as only big laundries and institu- tions purchase same in bags or cases. The retail trade requires the soap powder wrapped up in paper, and if this has to be done the powder must not be too moist, as the paper otherwise will fall to pieces. This spoils the appearance of the package, and likely a part of the quantity may be lost When the powder is too moist or absorbs easily external moisture, the paper pack- ages swell very easily and burst open; against this the manufacturer has also to guard, since the retailer and his clients are not likely to use a packet of powder not delivered in good condition

The best filling material to be employed when it is desired to produce a cheaper article is talcum, and in most cases this is preferred to water-glass. The supe riority of the former over the latter is that water- glass hardens the powder, and this is sometimes done to such an extent, when a large quantity of filling material is needed, that it becomes very difficult to rub the soap through the sieves. In case this difficulty arises, only one thing can be done to lighten the task, and that is to powderize the soap when the mixed materials are still warm, and this facilitates the work very much It is quite self-evident that the rubbing procedure under these conditions leaves a quantity of the soap powder material on the sieves, and this can- not be lost. Generally it is scraped together and se- turned to the pan to be included in the next batch, when it is worked up, and so becomes useful, a need which does not arise when talcum has been used as a filling material Again, the soap powder made with the addition of water-glass is not so soluble, and at the same time much denser than when the preparation has been made without this material. It is thus that the purchaser receives by equal weight a smaller looking quantity, and as the eye has generally a great influ- ence when the consumer determines a purchase, the small sized parcels will very unlikely impress him will be under the impression of getting less for his money, a very unsat-

favorably, and he “being done,”

SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT, No. 1424.

isfactory frame of mind for a purchaser to be in. This second quality of soap powder is made of the same ingredients as the other, only an addition of about six parts of talcum is made, and this is stirred up with the other material after all the soda has been dis- solved. Some makers cheapen the products also by re- ducing the quantity of hard soap from five to three parts and they avoid the filling; the same quantity of soda is used in all cases. On the same principle a better quality is made by altering the proportions of soda and soap the other way, and experiments will soon show which proportions are most suitable for the purpose.

So-called ammonia-turpentine soap powder has been made by crutching oil of turpentine and ammonia with the materials just about the time before the whole is taken out of the heating pan. Some of the powder is also scented, and the perfume is added at the same time and not before. .In most of the latter cases mirbane oil is used for the purpose.—Oils, Col- ours and Drysalteries. HISTORY OF FINGER RINGS.*

By Cyrrit Davenport, F.S. A.

I FIND no constructive sequence or development in the matter of finger rings, so have only used a kind of subject arrangement for my remarks and for my slides. This arrangement is, of course, capable of much subdivision, but as it is, it may be found useful as a table of reference. I make two large divisions,

official and personal, and these in their turn are divided as follows: I. Official:

1. Ecclesiastical —Popes, Bishops, Abbots, etc.

2. Civil.—Coronation rings, masonic rings.

3. Military—Knights Templars, etc.

Il. Personal:

1. Love and marriage rings.

2. Religious rings—i.e., decade and rings.

3. Charm rings.—i. e., cramp, talismanic, astrolo- gical, or reliquary rings.

pilgrim

4. Mourning rings—i.e., portrait of deceased per- sons; bit of their hair, etc. 5. Ornamental rings—i.e., signet, giardinetti, precious stones, ete. 6. Miscellaneous—i.e., whistle, puzzle, squirt, poison, watch, compass, etc. Finger rings, although sometimes found made of

bits of curled shell or fibers, are not much used by savage nations. It is obvious that necklaces and brace- lets can be worn without interfering with the ordinary work of primitive men, but finger rings are not suit- able for anyone using his hands as a workman. So that they may be considered as ornaments chiefly used by persons above the rank of workmen.

Rings with scarab signets are constantly found on Egyptian mummies, sometimes set in gold, and some- times made of glazed porcelain—glass or earthen- ware.

There are several references to finger rings as sig- nets, in the Bible. Darius sealed up the lion’s den with his signet (Dan. vi:17), and Jezebel used her husband's seal for the counterfeit letters condemning Naboth (I. Kings xxi:8), and for the wearing of rings there are numbers of instances—as when Judith went to meet Holofernes.

Catullus mentions a very early ring legend in his account of the marriage feast of Peleus and Thetis, to which Prometheus came—

“Sage Prometheus, on his hand he wore

The slender symbol of his doom of yore

When fettered fast in adamantine chain,

Hung from the craggy steep, he groaned in endless pain.”

The legend tc which this refers is to the effect that Prometheus, having stolen the sacred fire from Phebus, Jupiter condemned him to be chained to a rock for- ever, but in a short time repented the severity of his sentence, and cleverly got out of his difficulty by mak- ing Prometheus wear a ring made out of one of the links of his chain and set with a piece of the rock. So that the sentence was actually fulfilled, but the offender was free.

Pieces of the true cross were often inserted in the bezels of rings. The word bezel is a form of the Ger- man “bissel,” a mouthful, because the chaton, or metal holder for the stone, opens like a mouth to receive it. Relics of the saints, protective substances like the toad- stone, and all kinds of talismanic pieces, were set in rings, as well as legends lettered upon them. Many have the names of the Three Kings of Cologne upon them as a charm against disease. These names are “Gaspar, Melchior, Baltasar,” and other words are some- times added tu them. Early Greek rings sometimes have the mystical Swastika upon them.

Gyges’ ring rendered him invisible when he turned the stone inward. Many other rings were said to possess this power.

Solomon on one occasion lost his ring, and it was found again at a table when a large fish was opened. The same story is told of Polycrates, by Herodotus, and there are several other renderings of it.

The Virgin's ring is a superstition to the effect that the wedding ring of Joseph and Mary was of onyx or amethyst, and that it was miraculously multiplied, several examples of it being still preserved among the treasures of the churches on the Continent, a particu- larly fine one in the Duomo at Perugia.

The Doge of Venice used to throw a ring into the Adriatic as a symbol of his marriage to the sea.

The Pope’s Ring of Investiture is called the “Fisher- man’s Ring.” It is a lesser seal of gold, the Bulla being the great seal. On the stone is engraved a figure of St. Peter in a fisherman’s boat with a net. Each Pope has a replica made for him with the addition of his name or initials.

Ordinary Papal rings are very large and cumbersome. They are usually worn outside the glove on the thumb, but if ever worn without the glove they have a smaller guard ring to keep them on. Bishops and Abbots were also invested with official rings, and following their example in this matter, as well as in many of their

* Abstract of lecture delivered before the Society of Arts, London,

Apri 18, 1908,

vestments, Christian kings and queens usually rege; a coronation ring on their crowning from the off} ing priest. This coronation ring is really a sign of priestly character of the sovereign. Pliny says Britons wore rings on their middle fingers.

In Rome as early as the fourth century B. C., gq gold rings were worn. They are also recorded as } ing been used in the time of Claudius in the first o tury, but they were at this time more frequently m of sulphur or mastic overlaid with thick gold foil,

Several old Roman rings are found with flat me bezels. It is supposed that these were originally py ished and served as small mirrors. Mirror rings still used in Hindostan.

Under the early Roman Republic senators alg had the privilege of wearing gold rings, and in t time of Tiberius, in the first century, the wearing ,; such rings became one of the distinctive marks of knight. When one of these had been invested with ¢ ring he was known as “eques auratus.” During thj reign were also promulgated various other sumpty laws concerning rings, which became, in fact, badges, civil and military rank.

No one was allowed to wear a gold ring unle himself, his father, and his grandfather were al! fre born, his property worth at least 400 sestertia (abo £4,000), and he possessed the right to sit in one, the fourteen rows of seats allotted to the equestrial order by the Julian law. These laws were enacts to stop the immoderate use of jewelry.

The keeping of the Roman Imperial ring wis « trusted to a keeper, in the same way as our gre seal is always in charge of a high official.

Isidorus says that at a little later date freebo Roman men and women might wear gold rings, ‘ree men rings of silver, and slaves only iron ring decree of the senate was necessary to enable a ‘r man to wear a gold ring, but slaves used to cover y their iron rings with gold foil, so as to appear fr born. Rings of this kind are called “Samothrac ian

In later Roman times the hands were frequent! laden with numerous rings, a fashion revived in Bj rope during the middle ages. They were also ofte extravagant in size. Seneca says, “We adorn fingers with rings, and a jewel is displayed on ver joint.” These rings were sometimes made of lap lezuli, erystal, amber glass, and many other substance as well as in metal.

Roman wives used to wear housekeepers’ s gn¢ rings to seal up their cupboards, as well as the wax stoppers of their wine jars. As the sanctity of t impression of the signet gradually became less marke actual keys were made use of, and these are plentiful found in the transitional state of ring-keys, the ri part lying flat on the finger. Sometimes such ring have a signet upon them as well.

Ancient Jewish ceremonial, betrothal, and weddin rings are very large, and it is said that they ha to represent a certain value. Roman wedding ring were usually of iron, to symbolize the lasting natu of the union or the engagement. Marriage condition or settlements were written down, and sealed with t annulus signatorius, a survival of which, though no obsolete in most cases, still remains in the form of smail wafer or place for the seal. A piece of ‘oa stone, indicating the attractive power of love, was

highly-esteemed stone for an engagement ring. Gimmal and posy rings are both probably form of engagement rings. The Gimmel, or double rin

fits together so as to appear as one; several of thet end in two hands, which fit into each other. They ar plentiful from the fourteenth to the sixteenth cet tury, in France, Italy, and England. The “posy’ ¢ “poesie” rings have verses, names, or mottoes engrave inside them; sometimes the gimmal rings have th also, as in the case of the engagement ring made fq Mrs. Fitzherbert and the Prince Regent, shown at ti yuelph Exhibition. This ring was in two pieces, fittin accurately together if given the proper twist, and @ one piece was the Prince’s name, and on the othe the lady's.

In Jones’ “Finger-ring Lore” will be found a op list of posies from the insides of rings. These an now and then witty, but as a rule are very commog place—e. g.:

“Let us Love Like Turtledove,” or— “God saw thee Most fit for me.” or— “If thee doesn’t work Thee shasn’t eat.” The French posies are, as a rule, prettier— “Mieux mourir que change ma foi,” or rebuses like “L. A. C. D.” (Elle a céde!)

So-called regard rings, which are similar lovers gifts, are rings set with stones, the initials of whid make words—e. g.:

Ruby E merald Garnet A methyst R uby D iamond. They are said to be a French idea, which is likel enough. A favorite sentiment is Lapis lazuli

O pal M alachite

Verd antique E merald.

E merald

Rings of this kind also often enshrine names, as,

Beryl E merald R uby T urquoise I acynth E merald.

Betrothal rings were sometimes broken in two, an each piece suspended by a chain or ribbon round th neck of its particular owner. In the “Exeter Garland this fashion is immortalized:

“A ring of pure gold from her finger she took, And just in the middle the same she broke; Quoth she, ‘As a token of love you this take, And this, as a pledge, I will keep for your sake.’”

ns ire

Th Du by

rin on be

wh in

the ha fal sta

or! we of

stc of

Tl en de de co ril sti

po we he ri

pe to

Wl w] ne ca

18, 1908,

isually rece; m the offic) y a Sign of liny says 's.

ry B. C., sg corded as } | the first quently mas gold foil, ith flat me, originally p ‘ror rings

enators alg 3, and in t le wearing , ® marks of sted with ¢t

During th er sum) tua act, badges,

ring unle were al! fre tertia (abo sit in one, 1e equestri were elacts

ring wis e as our gn

ate freebo; rings, ‘ree m ring able a ‘r to cover y appear fr mothra: ian

e frequent! vived in By e also ofte / adorn oy ed on over ide of lap

r substance

pers’ s gp s the waxe ctity of th less marke e plentiful ys, the ri such ring

nd weddin it they ha dding ring ting natur > condi’ ion ed witl though no > form of

ce of ‘oa love, was ring.

ably form ouble rin ‘al of thea They ar teenth cer “posy”’ Ss engrave have th z made fa own at th eces, fit tin ist, and o the othe

ind a ‘on These a y commos

) ar lover of whid

is likel

S, as,

two, an ound th Garland

took, Ke, sake,’ ”

Aprm, 18, 1903.

Wedding rings used to be blessed and put on the missal book at English marriages, with money. In the ancient ritual of marriage in England the wedding ring was placed on the thumb of the bride’s left hand by the bridegroom with the words, “In the name of the Father;” then taken off and put on the, first finger with the words, “and of the Son;” then taken off and put on the second finger with the words, “and of the Holy Ghost;” and then taken off and put on the third finger with the word, “Amen.” On the third finger it remains up to the present. The breaking of a wed- ding ring on the finger of a wife is a prognostication of widowhood.

But sometimes it seems that English ladies wore their wedding rings permanently on their thumb. Rings are shown in pictures tied on to the wrist as a bracelet, and also, when on the finger, they were now and then guarded by a ribbon brought round and fastened on the wrist. It is not certain whether these were wedding rings or not Some English wedding rings of the sixteenth century are charmingly designed with two hands hold- ing a heart between them. The giving of a ring implies confidence, and with it the wife used to take the gift of the household keys. Not very long ago in England it was the fashion at weddings to give away numbers of rings to the invited guests. I believe this fashion was followed at the wedding of Queen Victoria.

During the Commonwealth the use of the wedding- ‘ng was for a time given up, owing to what was con-

lered its heathenish origin and the consequent

ritan scruples against it. A seventeenth century ng says about this: “They will not hear of wedding rings For to be used in their marriage, But say they're superstitious things, And do religion much disparage.”

In the Isle of Man there was an old custom by virtue

which, if a man offended an unmarried woman and ie obtained a judgment against him, the Deemster ave her a rope, a sword, and a ring. The lady then ad the man’s punishment in her own hands. She ad either to hang him with the rope, cut off his head ith the sword, or marry him with the ring.

The women of Prussia during the war of 1813 gave p their gold wedding rings to the war fund, and in eu of them the government gave them iron rings, nscribed “Ich gabe Gold fiir Eisen.” These iron rings ire now very highly prized.

Pilgrims’ rings show the marks of two feet, or a hell, as memorials of the pilgrimage to the Mount of lives.

Decade, dicket, or rosary rings are marked with points for the saying of aves and paternoster; the more isual form is small spherical projections for the aves, ind a cross for the paternoster. These curious rings were made from the fourteenth to the sixteenth cen tury, both in France and England, and they occur in various materials—chiefly gold, bronze, or ivory.

The natural crystal of diamond is an octagon, two of the opposite points of which are more acute than the others. At the “girdle,” these crystals can be divided without much difficulty, and the two points then left were easily polished, requiring no cutting, and during the sixteenth century particularly, in both France and England, they were set in rings, point uppermost, and used for writing or drawing upon glass. They also make very pretty rings especially when there are small enamel dots or lines on the setting near the stone. The Device of the Medici was an arrangement of three writing rings set with pointed diamonds.

There are several recorded writings made with these rings, the best known being perhaps the couplet writ- ten by Francis I. of France on one of the windows at Chambord:

“Souvent femme varie Mal habil quis’y fie.

This was said to have alluded to the fickleness of the Duchesse d’Estampes, whose side, however, was taken by Francis’s sister Marguerite who was present, and who capped the couplet with a “tu quoque.”

Another well-known occasion on which such a writing ring was used was when Sir Walter Raleigh wrote on a window during an interview with Queen Eliza- beth:

“Fain would I climb but that I fear to fall,” which the Queen is said to have answered by writing in her turn:

“If thy heart fail thee, do not climb at all.”

Heraldic signet rings have been common ever since the fifteenth century, but now for a long time the habit of sealing letters with an impressed signet has fallen into abeyance. Such rings are, however, con- stantly made now, serving only as ornaments.

Several of the Italian Giardinetti rings are very ornamental, but they are usually uncomfortable to wear with other rings. The common design is a bunch of flowers in a basket, the flowers made in colored stones and pearls. Small cut pieces of markasite are often found in these Giardinetti rings.

Poison rings were known in ancient Roman times. The Emperor Heliogabalus always wore one to use in emergency, but in the end he was murdered so sud- denly that he had no ti:ne to get at his poison. Pliny describes how an erring custodian of the Capitol was condemned to torture and escaped it by biting his ring, the stone of which was a mere shell containing strong poison.

During the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries poison rings were not uncommon in Italy. The poison was sometimes contained in a small box under the hezel, or in points like a viper’s tooth. The signet ring of Cesar Borgia, dated 1503, is of gold, and inside is engraved the motto, “Fays ce que doys, avien que pourra,” and a small sliding panel at the back is said to have contained poison.

Lately in Paris a collector bought an old ring in which was figured a lion with sharp claws of steel, which gave him an accidental scratch of which he nearly died. The claws were hollowed and communi- cated with a small poison receptacle.

A sardonyx ring, with a cameo portrait of Queen Elizabeth, was exhibited at the Society of Antiquaries in March, 1858, by the Rev. Lord John Thynne. This

SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT, No. 1424.

ring is that which was said to have been given by Queen Elizabeth to the Earl of Essex with the under standing that if ever he sent it back to her with a re- quest, the request should be granted. Essex was presently condemned to death, and endeavored to send this ring to the Queen with a request for forgiveness. The ring, unluckily, fell into the hands of the Countess of Nottingham, who was an enemy of the Earl’s, and she annexed it herself, and it never reached the Queen. Some time afterward, when Lady Nottingham was dying, she sent for the Queen and told her the story, on hearing which Elizabeth is said to have slapped her face, and told her that “God might forgive, but she would not.”

There are other owners of “Essex” rings who dis- pute the authenticity of this particular ring in favor of their own.

Memorial rings are often made with pieces of hair ornamentally arranged in the shape of urns, initials, or as braided plaits with gold-wire initials upon them. They are also sometimes in the interesting form of portraits, the most numerous examples showing the likeness of any one person being those made in mem- ory of Charles I., some of which are good pieces of work. Portrait rings are also often found containing small cameos, or intaglios. Several memorial rings of Lord Nelson show initials and coronets on a ground- work of black enamel.

In Beste’s “Nowadays at Home” is told a story of the Duke of Wellington meeting Miss Dawson Damer at dinner, and noticing a ring of peculiar pattern that she was wearing. The Duke recognized the ring as being a duplicate of one King George IV. had shown him. Both of these rings had a secret spring, and this being pressed a panel opened, and within was a miniature portrait; the King’s had a portrait of Mrs Fitzherbert in it, and Mrs. Fitzherbert’s had a por trait of the King in it. The Duke showed Miss Damer how to touch the spring, and inside was the King’s portrait. The ring had been bequeathed to her by Mrs. Fitzherbert. The Duke then told her that the King had given him, the Duke, the fellow ring shortly before his death, and made him promise to put it on his breast when in his coffin. The request the Duke ful filled, and so the King still wears the portrait of his wife.

Different materials used for settings in rings have had all sorts of virtues and powers attributed to them: among the most universal are, perhaps:

Emerald—For ensuring purity of thought

Sapphire—Cooling; used for priests’ rings, to show their coolness for worldly pleasures

Carbuncle—For preserving health and luxury.

Turquoise—Indicates the illness by changing color

Gold—Cures St. Anthony’s fire.

Jet—Drives away serpents.

A silver piece collected from the communion offer- tory, and made into a ring, was supposed to be good for fits. Silver rings with magical inscriptions upon them were considered good for the cramp

The proper stones for rings to be worn on certain days of the week, are as follows:

Sunday—Gold or yellow topaz.

Monday—Pearls or white topaz.

Tuesday—Ruby or garnet.

Wednesday—Sapphire or turquoise.

Thursday—Amethyst

Friday—Emerald.

Saturday—Diamond.

For the months also, certain stones have long en- joyed special fitness, e. g.:

January—Garnet, signifying constancy.

February—Amethyst, signifying sincerity.

March—Bloodstone, signifying courage.

April—Diamond, signifying innocence.

May—Emerald, signifying success in love.

June—Agate, signifying health.

July—Carnelian, signifying content

August—Sardonyx, signifying conjugal! felicity

September—Chrysolite, signifying sanity of mind.

October—Opal, signifying hope.

November—Topaz, signifying fidelity

December—Turquoise, signifying truth.

repressing

presence of poison or

ON POLONIUM.

By F.

THe small quantities of bismuth which may be ob- tained from the lead separations of the uranium min erals (Berichte, 1900, xxxiii.> 1667), at first emit pene- trating # rays, to about the same extent as a barium salt containing about 5 per cent of radium. It is al- ready known that after some time these rays gradu- ally disappear, until only a residual effect remains. | have shown (Berichte, 1902, xxxv., 3610) that from such bismuth Marckwald’s substance may be derived, which only yields the (a) rays which can be absorbed. It was interesting to observe whether also the method of purification described by Mdme. Curie (Physik. Zeit., 1903, viii, 234) for her polonium might be used with the same result as Marckwald’s method on my fresh polonium. This is actually the case. If, for example, the hydroxide is treated with a sufficient excess of nitric acid, sometimes a small quantity of yellowish flakes remains undissolved; these phos- phoresce, and only give a-rays. From the filtrate, by repeated fractional precipitation with water, bismuth sub-nitrate may be obtained, and the most difficultly soluble fractions become more and more like Marck- wald’s substance; the precipitates from the mother- liquor, on the contrary, give finally only #-rays. Frac- tional precipitation with metallic magnesium acts sim- ilarly. If the chloride is evaporated to dryness on the water-bath the mass becomes blackish, and on solution in hydrochloric acid brownish-black flakes remain undissolved; these emit a-rays very strongly. But the separations are not so complete as when Marckwald’s beautiful method with metallic bismuth* is employed If a fragment of bismuth is placed in a solution of the

GIESEL.

* Similar results may be obtained in less degree with platinum and gold, and better with palladinm than with bismuth; but it is questionable whether analogous reactions occur,

22819

chloride preyiously purified by Curie’s method, even after some days no trace of a precipitate appears, and no coloration can be perceived on it. The effect is all the more surprising. The piece of bismuth phos- phoresces, ozonizes the air, and when it is placed on the zinc sulphide screen the immediate surroundings radiate as strongly as the barium platinum cyanide screen owing to pure radium

If older preparations of polonium are examined in the same way the same results are obtained, but the products are of less value. This leads me to the sup position that the a-radiation also of the substance is not constant.

I have not demonstrated the presence of tellurium, nor yet succeeded in purifying the substance with zine chloride. Nor have | been able to observe any- thing which would suggest that the polonium prepara tions (with a-radiation) prepared by different methods are not qualitatively identical; they only differ quanti- tatively owing to varying adulteration with inactive substances, or with those rendered active by induction (bismuth).

I might mention that the two separations of my polonium, whose rays are called a- and (/-rays respec tively, may be distinguished by the aid of the zinc sulphide screen and the ordinary barium platinum cyanide screen.* The a-radiation only acts on the former, and the j-radiation on the latter

The f-radiation of radium behaves differently, for it affects both screens.—Berichte der Deutsch. Chem

Ges.

IS THE EFFECT OF RADIO-ACTIVE SUBSTANCES AN ABSORPTION OF GRAVITATIONAL ENERGY?

Herr R. Getcet recently made an investigation to determine whether the energy given out from radio active substances was received through the absorption of gravitational energy. He was not able to detect any difference in weight in any of his weighings Herr Carl Forch has repeated this work, using a more sensi tive balance and conditions more favorable to detect a difference. Geigel made use of lead spheres weighing five and one-half grammes, and a balance which dé flected two and seven-tenths divisions for one mil gramme. Forch used a balance having a deflection o from five to six divisions per milligramme, and lead masses weighing ninety-six grammes. A telescope was used to watch the balance. lhe radio-active material used in Forch’s work was contained it. “lass tubes, and by arranging these in groups, he was able to obtain a layer of active material twenty square centimeters in area and from three to six millimeters thick This was placed about fifteen millimeters under the lead These tubes discharged in from twenty-six to thirty seconds an electroscope which, in non-ionized air, showed practically no discharge after one and one-half hours. The arrangement of apparatus should egive a sensibility forty to fifty times greater than that used by Geigel. Observations were made and repeated a number of times, the results of which are here given The mean value of these readings showed a deflection corresponding to about one two-hundred-and-fiftieth of a milligramme, or, relatively to the lead mags, one part in 25,000,000. These resuits are believed to show that with the radio-active substance used in this case, at least, there was no absorption of gravitational energy

greater than the figure given.—Physikalische Zeit- schrift. LATEST AND BEST VALUE OF THE MECHANI-

CAL EQUIVALENT OF HEAT.; CARL HERING

In recalculating some tables recently, the writer re quired, among other fundamental constants, the latest and best value of the mechanical equivalent of heat. An extended and very thorough search was therefore made in the literature on this subject. The final r sults were as follows:

The best and most authoritative summaries of the numerous experimental determinations of this constan: are unquestionably those contained in two reports to the International Physical Congress of 1900, which met in Paris (Rapports; Congrés Internationale dk Physique, 1900, tome I; see chiefly pp. 204 and 226) One of these is on the mechanical equivalent of heat, by Prof. J: S. Ames, of Johns Hopkins University and the other on the specific heat of water, by Prof E. H. Griffiths, of Cambridge, England. The specific heat of water and the mechanical equivalent of heat are the same constant in different terms, the former being merely the value of the latter in absolute units

These two summaries are authoritative and to some extent official, as they are in the form of reports to an international congress. That congress took no action toward adopting any definite value; but a value ap proximating much more closely to the most probable one than the one in general use does is easily obtained from these reports

Griffiths, in his report, after a careful comparison of the best determinations, recommends the number 4.187 joules for what is usually termed the speciiic heat ot 1 gramme of water raised from 15 deg. to 16 deg. C measured on the hydrogen scale of the International Bureau. The probable error is less than 1 in 2,000 This change of temperature is to be considered the same as the mean value between 1 deg. and 100 deg. C This value, 4,187, agrees with the one recommended in the report of Ames

Taking for the value of gravity at sea-level and at 45 deg. latitude, as 9.805966 meters, a standard value given by Helmert and used by our Coast Survey, the value of the mechanical equivalent reduces to 426.985 kilogrammeters. Some recent, very carefully made researches by Barnes, which were not finished in time to be included in Griffiths’ report, give the value 426.6 The allowable error in Griffiths’ value affects the fourth figure, and it is therefore hardly justified to re- tain more than four figures, but in view of Barnes’ more recent determination, it would probably be more

* An nnvarnished barium platinum cyanide screen is also affected by the a-radiation, but the zinc sulphide screen is far more sensitive + Proceedings of the Engiveers* Cluo of Philadelphia,

22820

correct to abbreviate Griffiths’ value to 426.9 instead of 427.0.

This value 426.9 kilogrammeters per kilogramme, Centigrade heat unit, corresponds to 778.1 foot-pounds per pound, Fahrenheit heat unit, which two value may, it seems, be accepted as the best determinations known to-day.

THE EVOLUTION OF THE PIANOFORTE.* By Ranvoiten I. Geare.

Ir a thousand people were asked to name the ex- ternal factor in their lives which contributes most to

PRIMITIVE MUSICAL BOWS.

the sum of their happiness, probably a large majority would reply, “Music Music fills a place in social and popular life which nothing else can supply. It soothes the refreshes the weary, and breathes an exhilarating inspiration over all who come under its influence

Man needs the charm of music to solace and encour- age him, and no race, however savage, has existed which did not employ some kind of musical instru- ment in its religious, social, and warlike exercises. Music thus becomes in no small degree the exponent of a nation’s temperament, and hence ranks high

sorrowing

HARP.

among the arts. Having so exalted a function, it has from time immemorial endeavored to create for itself adequate art-forms wherewith to express its own idea of the sublime, heroic and beautiful Every in- strument has its own peculiar power of making im- pressions upon the individual temperament,. but with

* Specially prepared for the ScrgNTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT.

SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT, No. 1424.

the exception of the pipe-organ, which obviously can- not enter into the range of domestic life, it is doubt- ful whether any instrument in any age or clime has exerted so powerful and beneficent an influence on the life of the people as the piano.

The object of this paper is to trace the history of the piano through the intermediary stages from

Aprii 18, 1908,

and No. 5 from Mozambique. and melancholy, is not unpleasant to the ear.

While it seems probable that the musical bow was the first stringed instrument used in any country others may possibly have preceded it, but even if this be so, it is doubtful whether the sound was produced by striking the string, and this is an essential feature

THE DULCIMER,

THE VIRGINAL

its origin and to point out some of the more important

changes in construction.

While the piano may properly be regarded as the

direct development of the clavichord, whose immediate

of the pianoforte. Other instruments of much later date, and having a far greater exterior likeness to the piano, are the spinet (or couched harp), virginal and harpsichord,.but in these the strings were picked and

THE SPINET.

ancestor was the dulcimer, the instrument which so far as now known may justly claim the most ancient relationship to the piano is the “musical bow”’—an almost unheard-of instrument, which has been found among various savage tribes of Africa.

Several of

these are here reproduced from specimens in the Na- tional Museum. No. 1 is from Mashonaland; No. 2 and 3 from Angola; No. 4 is from East Madagascar,

not struck; hence they cannot be regarded as having direct ancestral relationship with the piano. But, in order to gratify those (and they are many) who con- nect these instruments historically with the piano in their minds, their history will be briefly considered in their proper order.

Following the musical bow, in a direct line of de- velopment toward the piano, comes the dulcimer, which

The tone, while weird

may D and se in the the ea bas-rel mer, V the vit dulcim

Very the psa played the su

spinet, In tt ol jack psalter, lever, ¢ and ke crow q When | ward, with tl olds sf sel ble key wl l cc it ol strume used ii is sup] th it adies of the it deri tl nu in th Both tl ol he fi in a nd W er l her t por t me t cla I ory s ior i yrov n ce t ha t en vi gine wis st fiom t portan n <hed rmws ¢ aid ir f eble, was in Vy. rhe barpsie coun the icles ( ristof the was } rencl experi ies. e cal chords ever, § antly 1 his uced onflic iven nodels ng di hey ¢ vas ol Idea world howev in its spinet or fall

weird

was intry ’ this luced ature

Aprit 18, 1903.

may be described as a trapezoid box, strung with wires, and set in vibration by means of small hammers held in the hand. This instrument can be traced back to the earliest historical ages. In an ancient Assyrian pas-relief in the British Museum is seen a true dulci- mer, while in another, representing the triumph after the victory of Sardanapalus over the Susians, several dulcimers are shown in the procession.

Very similar to the dulcimer in general features is the psaltery, which, however, is a picked instrument, played with a plectrum, and which may be regarded as the successu. of the harp and the ancestor of the spinet, virginal and harpsichord. in the spinet the tones were produced by a series jacks, which took the place of the plectrum in the psaltery. These rested on the back end of the key- lever, and had movable tongues, working on a pivot and kept in place by a string. A thorn, or spike of crow quill, projected at right angles from the tongue. When the key was pressed down, the jack moved up- ward, and the quill was thus brought into contact with the string, which was caused to vibrate. The oldest spinets were without covers and strongly re- sembled duleimers. They had only one wire to each kev, whereas the harpsichord had two or more.

In connection with the spinet, the virginal, of which it only a modification, may be considered. This in- strument, also called the “clavi-cymbal,” was much us in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. It is supposed to have derived its name from the fact th it was intended especially for the use of young adies. Some assert that it was so named in honor of the “Virgin Queen” Elizabeth, while others believe it derived its name from the Virgin Mary, to whom th nuns in olden times addressed their hymns, us- it this form of instrument as an accompaniment. Bo h the spinet and virginal may be regarded as forms of the clavicytherium, or keyed psaltery, which was fi introduced in Italy about 1400 A. D. This was nd of harp with gut strings, in which a key-board employed with finger-keys to move the mechanical lecther plectra used for plucking the strings. Co- porary with the clavicytherium, but differing in

method of setting the strings in vibration, was clavichord, the direct precursor of the piano. Its ory will be discussed after an allusion to the harp- iord, which may be described as an enlarged and rroved form of the spinet and virginal.

n common with several other stringed instruments, harpsichord first appeared in Italy, and toward end of the sixteenth century it had superseded the zinal and spinet in many parts of the country. It strung with steel and brass wires, and contained

fiom two to five strings to each note—quite an im- tant innovation. These were struck by jacks fur- hed with quill plectra. Stops, swells, and double ws of keys were sometimes employed to regulate d increase the volume of sound. Its tone was ble, though susceptible to delicate modulations. It

is introduced into England in the seventeenth cent-

-“--

The chief difficulty in adjusting hammers to the l!arpsichord lay in the resulting increase of tension on

count of the heavier wires used and the greater force

the blow. After much experimenting these ob- icles were overcome, as we shall see, by Bartolomeo ( ristofori, a celebrated harpsichord-maker of Florence, the early part of the eighteenth century. While

was struggling with the problem in Italy, Marius, a !renchman, and Schroeter, a German, were making experiments in the same direction in their own coun-

ies. The former in 1716 submitted models of what

e called “clavecins a maillets,” or hammer-harpsi- chords. His idea in introducing hammers was, how- ever, simply to save the expense and trouble of con-

antly requilling the harpsichord. The chief defect

1 his invention was the lack of dampers, which pro- uced an effect like that of the dulcimer, a jangling of onflicting harmonies and an undue prolongation of a iven tone. Schroeter claims that he devised two nodels of hammer-actions between 1717 and 1721, “be- ng dissatisfied with the work of his pupils whenever hey chanced to perform on the harpsichord,” which vas obviously a very inexpressive instrument.

Ideals were gradually changing and the musical world was preparing for the advent of the piano, which, however, did not appear until after the clavichord had n its turn held sway. This instrument, unlike the spinet, virginal and harpsicherd, had no quills, jacks, or falling hammers, the tone being produced by little

SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT, No. 1424.

brass tangents at the ends of the keys, which when thrust against the strings acted as both hammer and bridge. An old writer described the music of the clavichord as “of a melancholy kind, sométhing like the effect of the close shakes on the violin,” and this

ls io a

—

22821

ages on this instrument whenever he had a long note to color, he absolutely produced the effect of a cry of sorrow and complaint, such as could only be effected on the clavichord, and perhaps by himself.” The clavichord was the first instrument to which mechan-

CLAVICHORD ACTION.

remark is quite apt, for the clavichord is the only key-board instrument on which a tremolo effect can be produced. The same writer heard Emanuel Bach play on the clavichord in 1772 at Hamburg, and of this performance he wrote: “In pathetic and slow pass-

ism was applied for striking the strings, and must al ways be regarded as the direct descendant of the dulci mer. Just when the clavichord first appeared is not certain, but there is a description of it in an old paper printed at Basle in 1511, and still earlier, under the

THE CLAVICHORD,

ULD ENGLISH SINGLE ACTION,

22822 .

name of “clarichord,” it was comparatively common in England. In a “fretted” clavichord of the sixteenth century as many as four notes were formed on one string, while in the “fret-free” instrument, introduced in 1725 by David Faber, each note had its own string. It is said that Sebastian Bach wrote his famous pre- ludes and figures for this latter form of clavichord.

Before introducing the history of the piano, it seems proper here to note the difference between its action and that of the clavichord. In the latter it was simply a piece of flattened brass wire, called a tangent, which was placed vertically at a point where it could be struck or pressed against its proper string, the right-hand division of which was free to vibrate, while the left-hand was muffled by a piece of cloth, the object of which was also to damp or stop the string, which it did the instant the finger was taken off the key The tones of the clavichord were feeble, soft and melancholy, and better suited to the student and composer than for the purposes of social amuse- ment

The action of the square pianoforte on its first in- troduction consisted of a key, a lifter, a hammer and a damper. The key was the same as that of the clavichord. The “lifter” was a brass wire with a piece of hard leather as a head. This lifter, when in motion, impelled the hammer against the string, but allowed it to rebound at once, thus enabling the string to vibrate unimpeded. The damper followed the ham- mer and stopped the vibrations as soon as the finger was removed from the key

The invention of the pianoforte (which merely means “soft and loud’) heralded in the all-important news that an instrument had been devised, unlike any of its predecessors, in which the volume of tone pro- duced could be diminished or increased at the will of the performer

The invention cf the piano is credited to Cristofori, the celebrated harpsichord maker, whose genius has already been mentioned, and who in 1709 appears to have exhibited four pianofortes. They were crude, it is true, and differed widely from our modern forms in many particulars Especially notable were the smallness of the hammer-head and the absence of any check such as is now in use, to arrest the hammer in its rebound. They also lacked control, save through that of the springs, over the forward movement, or escapement, of the hopper.*

It was the introduction of mechanism to prevent the rebound of the hammer that constituted the “double action, as opposed to the “single” action, in which the hammer had full play to bound and rebound, after first falling back from the string, causing a very un pleasant repetition of the same note

Not many years after Cristofori’s death piano-making fell into disfavor in Italy, partly on account of the dif ficulty which students experienced in acquiring the new touch, and partly owing to the imperfection of the means for “escapement.” Thus, the fruits of the invention were gathered elsewhere Silbermann was about that time engaged in Saxony in devising a pianoforte action. and in Germany he was credited with having made Schroeter's invention practicable. It seems probable, however, that he worked on the lines

already laid down by Cristofori It is recorded that he made two pianofortes in 1726, and showed them to J. S. Bach, who condemned them for the “weakness

of their trebles and their heavy touch,” and pronounced them as only “fit for rondos.”

Among others who were early engaged in this manu- facture of pianos were Stein, Peronnard, and Tschudi

In the latter half of the eighteenth century Johannes Zumpe, of London, began to make square pianos, which were occasionally fitted with drawers, so as to re semble tables—whence in Germany they were called

lafelklaviere They became very popular in France and England The original form was wing-shaped, like that of our grand piano, which, however, was

not known till about 1776, its invention being attrib uted to Americus Backers, a Dutchman, who by the contrivance of the regulating button and screw ren dered direct action certain This ultimately be came known as the “English action The earliest public notice of a pianoforte in England was in 1767, when it was announced, in connection with a perform- ance of the Beggar’s Opera, that after the first act Miss Brickler will sing a song from Judith, accom- panied by Mr. Dibdin, on a new instrument called Piano Forte

About 1760 twelve German workmen, nicknamed the twelve apostles, arrived in London and commenced making pianos One of them, Zumpe, as already stated, produced square pianos, which by reason of their moderate cost and the ease with which they rould be handled, sprang rapidly into popularity Tschudi, a Swiss, who had settled in London, became connected with the house, still existing, of Broad- wood & Sons, and about 1786 this firm became pre- eminently known as piancforte makers. John Broad- wood assisted Backers in producing the “English grand action,” and in 1783 introduced an important improve ment in the construction of the square piano by alter- ing the position of the tuning-pin block (or wrest plank) from the front of the instrument to the back, a change which has since been maintained He also made important changes in the construction and posi tion of the sounding-board

Then came Stodart, Erard, Clementi, Pleyel, Pape, and others, while Germany, too, contributed several in- ventors and improvers. Among these was John Geib, who in 1786 patented the first valuable “square action.” This became known as the “Grasshopper” action, and it held a leading place both here and in England up to 1840

Early in the nineteenth century William Southwell, of Dublin, invented the “cabinet upright,” and it is said that from this instrument all subsequent modifica- tions of the upright piano sprang

Probably the earliest piano-maker in this country was John Behrent, of Philadelphia, who in 1775 an- nounced that “he had finished an extraordinary in strument by the name of the pianoforte in mahogany,

* This honper, controlled by the springs, effected the immediate drop of the hamm»w from the strings after a blow had been struck, although the

key was still held down by the finger, and could be adjusted to escape from the hammer just before the latter reached the string.

SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT, No. 1424.

in the manner of the harpsichord.” In 1784 James Julian advertised “the great American piano of his own invention.” Other early makers were Charles Allbrecht, George Ulshofer and Benjamin Crehore. The latter had a workshop at Milton, Massachusetts, and among his apprentices were Alpheus Babcock, who in 1825, invented the cast-iron string-plate for square pianos, and John Osborn, with whom Jonas Chickering learned the businece He was the ‘founder of the house which bears the name of Chickering to the present day. Upon his death in 1853 the business fell to his three sons, Thomas F., C. Frank, and George H., the last of whom is the present nead of the firm of Chickering & Sons. Chickering’s “circular scale” for square pianos followed the introduction of the full metal plate and became the key to the develop- ment of the system of “overstringing,” or crossing of sections of the strings. This system was intended to divide up the tensional pull of the strings on the string-plate, to economize space, and to insure the in- strument staying in tune and up to pitch—two most important features, as we all readily understand. Several men experimented in this direction, but it remained for Steinway & Sons to apply it successfully. A piano constructed on this plan was exhibited by them at the American Institute Fair in 1855, and was awarded a gold medil. Another important feature of this piano consisted in placing the bridges farther in on the sounding-board, and thus bringing into sym- pathy hitherto unused sections of its surface. In 1859 this firm was granted a patent for a string-board for grand pianos, in which the strings were spread out in fan-shape, the construction of the plate was greatly improved, and a superior quality of wire was intro- duced

At this point the evolution of the piano may be regarded as established, although several other firms have made improvements, which are too numerous, however, to specify one by one, but which in the aggregate have rendered possible the production of the highest form of piano now on the market.

MAN’S PLACE IN THE UNIVERSE.* By E. WaLrer Maunper, F. R. A. 58.

Peruars the greatest drawback under which science

not one science alone, but each and all of the sciences in turn—labors at the present time is the impatience of the general public to receive precise, definite, and striking results. Thus, for example, most popular sci- entific lecturers find that their audiences look to them to lead up to some clear, crystallized conclusion. It demands some courage, and great skill, to press home upon a popular audience the truth that just in propor tion to the advance of our knowledge so is the increase in the number of the problems which are presented to us for solution. The horizon recedes as we advance, and, more than that, it widens at the same time.

A striking example of the eagerness with which the conjecture of a scientific man will be caught up, if only it be sufficiently definite and far-reaching, is afforded by Madler’s celebrated suggestion that the sun with its attendant planets might be traveling in a gigantic orbit of which the focus might be within the group of the Pleiades In how many thousands of essays, lectures, books, and sermons-the statement has ap- peared that science has proved that the center of attraction of the universe is located in Alcyone, the chief of the Pleiads, it would he useless to guess. Con- tradicted a thousand times, the legend seems to have lost none of its pristine vigor. Give a fable a yard’s start, and Truth appears to be unable to overtake it in less than a century.

We greatly fear that just such another myth has been started on its career, and by one of the most highly and most justly honored of living men of sci- ence. The Fortnightly Review for March, 1903, opens with an article, at once striking and attractive, on “Man's Place in the Universe, as Indicated by the New Astronomy,” by Alfred Russel Wallace, D.C.L., F. R.S. The article leads up to a theological application which it does not lie within our province here to discuss; it is the astronomical basis of the article alone with which we are concerned.

Dr. Wallace's first thesis is that the stellar universe is finite in extent and the stars finite in number. His next point is that the proper motions of stars furnish the best indication of their distances. Then he argues that the solar system is about equally distant from all parts of the Milky Way, and exactly in its plane. Then that the sun is one of the central orbs of a globular star cluster, and that this star cluster occu- pies a nearly exactly central position in the exact plane of the Milky Way. “Our sun is thus shown to occupy a position very near to, if not actually’ at the center of the whole visible universe, and therefore in all probability in the center of the whole material universe.”

This completes the first part of Dr. Wallace’s en- quiry; the second part deals with the earth's position in the solar system as regards its adaptability for organic life Here Dr. Walluce leaves strictly astronomical questions and is on his own ground. His point is that the conditions for the development of organic life are far more stringent than has been generally recognized. The surface temperature of the planet must remain stable within a very limited range, not for hundreds or thousands of years, bu: for millions, perhaps for hun- dreds of millions. The chief favorable conditions which in their combination appear to have rendered the devel- opment of a complex system of organic life possible on our earth, are its distance from the sun securing the equability of temperature just mentioned; an atmos- phere of sufficient density; broad and deep oceans, stirred into tides by the action of a large satellite; and the presence of deserts and volcanoes for'the dis- tribution of atmospheric dust. The stringency of these conditions appears to indicate that’ our earth is the only home of organic life within the solar sys- tem, and Dr. Wallace considers that suns near the confines of the stellar universe cannot have systems

*A Reply to “Man's Place in the Universe, as Indicated by the New Astronomy,” by Alfred Russel Wallace, D.C.L., F.R.S. Fortnightly Review, March, 1903, : 7

Aprit 18, 1908,

sufficiently stable for their planets to fulfill these con- ditions there. In his view, therefore, the position of the solar system in the center of the material uni- verse renders it probable that here, and here alone, has organic life reached its full development.

It will be seen that the entire argument falls to the ground if the first point, the demonstration that our universe is finite, is not complete. As Dr. Wallace himself remarks: “Infinite space has been well defined as a circle, or rather a sphere whose center is every- where and circumference nowhere;” and unless tlie material universe can be proved to be finite, we cer- tainly cannot prove that any particular body occupies its center. Dr. Wallace’s argument is, first that the telescopes of greatest size have failed to reveal to us fainter stars in anything like the same proportion which smaller telescopes had done; as if we were look- ing right through the stellar universe, and out inio the blackness of space beyond. This is partly ac- counted for by the fact that the increase in aperture of a refrector is necessarily accompanied by an in- crease in the absorption of its object-glass, and we are approaching the limit where the gain and loss will be balanced. So too with the photographic plate. For medium luminosities it is perfectly true that an it crease of exposure will compensate for inferiority of light in a strictly commensurable degree; but the correspondence ceases to hold good when we are dealin with very faint lights.

Dr. Wallace’s next argument is an extraordinar one. He tells vs, and quotes Prof. Newcomb* in hi support, that were the stars infinite in number, then w should receive en infinite amount of light from them A reference to what Prof. Newcomb actually has writ ten shows that Dr. Wallace has omitted two importan limitations which Prof. Newcomb attaches to this con clusion. It rests upon the hypotheses “that light is neve lost in its passage to any distance however great,” anc “that every region of space of some great but finit« extent is, on the average, occupied by at least on star.”” In short, Prof. Newcomb’s demonstration rests on the two conditions that light must come through space to us without any loss, and that the stellar uni verse must, on the whole, be uniform in constitution: it must not be structured We know that neither oi these conditions holds good. As there are bright bodies in space, so are there dark bodies. If the first be infinite in number, so must also be the second; we may almost say that the infinity of the second must be of a higher order. As Sir Robert Ball recently put it, “the dark stars are incomparably more numerou than those that we can see .. . and to attempt to number the stars of the universe by those whose transitory brightness we can perceive would be like es- timating the number of horseshoes in England by those which are red hot.” The same line of argument which would infer that from an infinity of bright suns the background of the sky should shine as the sun at noon day, will lead yet more forcibly to the conclusion, when the dark stars are the basis of the argument, that we are shut in by a veil which no light from an infinite distance can pierce. On the second point, that of struc- ture, we need only the evidence of our eyes. The existence of the Milky Way is proof that our stellar system has a strongly marked form. There is no ap- proach to uniformity of the stars as to direction, why should we assume that there is in distance? But Dr Wallace does not see that these two conditions are vital. He writes: “Even if we make an ample allow- ance for the stoppage of light by intervening dark bodies, or by cosmic dust, or by imperfect transparency of the ether, we should at least receive quite as much light from them as the sun gives us at noonday,” for- getful that the entire argument depends upon the exclusion of these three causes of absorption.

The attempted demonstration of the finite nature of the universe thus breaks down entirely; it is based upon a careless reading of Prof. Newcomb’s book. In his next point Dr. Wallace again rests upon Prof Newcomb, while again ignoring his deductions. He quotes: “If we should blot out from the sky all the stars having no proper motion large enough to be de- tected we should find remaining stars of all magni- tudes, but they would be scattered almost uniformly over the sky, and show no tendency toward the Milky Way.” Prof. Newcomb’s words are actually somewhat different. He writes, “show little or no tendency to crowd toward the Galaxy, unless, perhaps, in the region near 19 hrs. of R.A. From this, again, it fol- lows that the stars belonging to the Galaxy lie farther away than those whose proper motions can be de tected.” This conclusion of Prof. Newcomb’s cannot be disputed, but Dr. Wallace substitutes for it another, viz.: that stars with measured proper motions con- stitute a globular mass, and that we must be situated very near indeed to the center of this solar cluster.

The points upon which Dr. Wallace lays stress as to the Galaxy, namely, that the sun is situated in its central plane, and nearly centrally with regard to it, are indeed matters of fact. But, on the one hand, so far from his having led the way in pointing out these facts, they have been fully considered by every astronomer who has treated of the Galaxy at all; and on the other hand, he gives to the two facts a greater precision than he is warranted in doing. The Galaxy marks out roughly a great circle in the sky; it is far too irregular an object for anyone to be able to declare that its axis lies precisely along a great circle. But it is exceedingly convenient to treat it as if it did, and no error can arise from such a convention except when an argument like Dr. Wallace's is seriously based upo. it. But with regard to our sun being placed in its center, the estimate of the distance from us of the mean mass of the Milky Way is roughly three hundred light-years; a “light-year” being the distance which it takes light a year to traverse, nearly six millions of millions of miles. Our distance from Alpha Centauri is a little over four light-years, so that we have no right to say that we are nearer the center than this twin sun of ours; nor indeed would it be safe to assert it of any of the stare whose parallax can be considered really well-determined. From the nature of the case, a dis- tance of over thirty light-years involves a parallax too small for really satisfactory handling, and yet

*“The Stars; A Study of the Universe.” By Prof. Simon Newcomb,

atm tpn Mm A oo woe

1908,

these con. position of terial uni- ere alone, nt. it falls to ation that r. Wallace ell defined is every- inless the Pp, we cer- y occupies that the real to us roportion vere look. out into artly ac- aperture y an in- d we are S will be ite. For it an i iority o! but the > dealin

ordinary * in hi then w m them as wril iportan his con is neve: at,” anc it finite ast one nm rests -hrough lar uni tution: ther ol bright he first nd; we 1 must tly put merou mpt to whose ike es- Y those which ns the noon when at we infinite struc- The stellar 10 ap- . Why it Dr Ss are illow- dark rency much ’ for- the

iture ased (a Prof. He the » de- gni- *mly vhat y to the fol- her de not her, ‘on- ted

Apri 18, 1903.

makes but an inconsiderable fraction of the diameter of the ring of the Milky Way.

More than that, our sun is itself traveling at a pace sufficient to bridge the distance to Alpha Centauri in sixty-five thousand years, a mere moment in our world‘s complete life-history. If this pace has been main- tained in a straight line, five million years ago we were deep in the actual stream of the Miiky Way; five million years hence we shall have completely crossed the gulf which it encircles, and again be a member of one of its constituent groups, but on the opposite side. And ten million years are regarded by geologists and biologists as but “a trifle on account” to meet their de- mands upon the bank of Time.

The paragraphs on “The Earth as Adapted for Life,” are rather for biologists to criticise than for astronomers, but the conclusion of the paper contains several statements which almost lead us to doubt whether we have not been mistaken in supposing the article to be a serious one, and whether it was not intended as an elaborate skit on astronomical cosmog- onies. How else can we regard the statement that “we can actually see beyond the outer boundaries” of the material universe, “a limited universe of matter and ether’? To see beyond the luminiferous ether re- minds one of the inventor who discovered a universal solvent, but did not know of what to make the bottle in which to hold it, so that the precious liquid was all lost. Dr. Wallace compares the stars of the Milky Way-to the molecules of a gas, and suggests that “a eertain proportion of them would continually escape from the attractive power of their neighbors, and wan- dering into outer space soon become dead and cold and lost forever to the universe.’ The process, he not obscurely intimates, will be continued indefinitely, until this earth of ours, from being the center of the uni- verse will become the center of a space from which the universe has all departed. He thus offers to our poor planet only the cold comfort which Polyphemus ten- dered to Odysseus, that he should be eaten last. Dr. Wallace further intimates that “at any considerable distance beyond the central portion of the universe gravitation would vary in intensity in different direc- tions,” and gravely suggests that this variation may possibly be detected by means of the motions of remote binary stars.

To sum up, the little in Dr. Wallace’s paper which can fairly be said to be demonstrated fact is anything but new, and that which is new, whether true or not, is as yet but speculation. His conclusions are, at the best, premature, and lie in a region which, from its very nature, must probably always be outside the bounds of our knowledge. The Milky Way, which forms the chief portion of the structure of that sidereal system in which we are placed, no doubt is finite in extent, and we can make certain statements with re gard to it. But we are not yet in a position to say that all of the objects revealed to us by the telescope are included in that system; nor can we legitimately assert that what is apparently true of such of it as we can see is absolutely true of the entire material uni- verse. Dr. Wallace’s underlying error is, indeed, that he has reasoned from the area which we can embrace with our limited perceptions to the Infinite beyond our mental or intellectual grasp. We are on the earth, and can only reason, only guess from our earthly experience of the laws, of the materials, of the conditions else- where. Our eyes have limited powers of vision, our mental grasp is confined, our days are but few on the earth, and our experience small; all these boundaries limit for us the universe, however vast it may actually be, and inevitably tend to make our viewpoint seem to be the center of our horizon.—Knowledge.

THE CLAY-WORKING INDUSTRIES OF GREECE. Tue modern pottery of Greece is principally of two kinds, viz., ordinary, cheap crockery ware, for common or general use, and fine ceramic pottery, artistically made and finished by men who have studied the art at the Polytechninum, and who model their work after the celebrated ancient pottery of Greece, imitating the shape, colors, finish, etc. Some of these clay-workers become very proficient, and make fine imitations of many of the ancient styles. In the preparation of the clay for pottery, brick, or tile, the Greeks sometimes mix it by hand, but often in a simply-constructed clay mixer, turned by horse power. The ordinary or com- mon pottery is very cheap, and is used for all kinds of culinary and household purposes. Jars, jugs, vases, bowls, basins, pots, etc., of a reddish color, and usual- ly unglazed on the outside, but glazed within, are in general use, and can be bought at very low prices. In many places, but especially, says the United States Consul at Athens, on the Island of A®gina, a cream- colored water jug or jar is made, which is so porous that when filled with water the moisture keeps con- tinually exuding to the outside and there evaporating, which wonderfully cools the contents, especially when the vessel stands in the air. These cheap “water coolers” are used by everyone, rich and poor, and great numbers of them are manufactured and sold every year. These jars are very cheap, but friable Many thousand jugs of the red ware are continually in use for carrying and holding water. Pottery manu- factories are very numerous in Greece.’ In Athens there are a dozen or more, the most noted of which are in the “Keramiekos” (clay workers) quarter in the western portion of the city, and on the “Sacred Way” of the ancients. They turn out many kinds of crockery, and some very good imitaiions of ancient vases, etc. In the Cyclades, and in all the islands of the A®gean Sea, there are pottery manufactories, and the pottery of each island has certain characteristics peculiar to itself, owing to the difference in the clay, or the method used in its manufacture. Roofing tiles are manufactured in immense numbers in Greece. In and near the cities and large villages there is scarcely any other kind of roof in existence, but in the moun- tain villages some of the- roofs are covered with flat stones, or slabs of stone. Tiles are manufactured in or near every city or town of any size in the kingdom, suitable clay for the purpose being plentiful and wide- ly distributed. The tiles are made by hand, the only machinery usec being a simple and primitive “mixer,” turned by a horse or mule, which mixes the clay in a

SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT, No.

pit in the ground. With the exception of those situ- ated in and near Athens, the outfit of the Grecian tile manufactories is neither elaborate nor costly. A tile manufacturer of the smaller towns can often carry his entire plant on the backs of two or three donkeys, and thus move from village to village where there is a de- mand for tiles. Drain tiles and chimney tiles are made in considerable quantities. Nearly all the chimneys on dwellings in Greece are simply tiles built into the walls of the building, and extending to three feet above the roof. Ventilators are made in the same way. With the exception of those producing marble, of which there are many good varieties, magnesite or other minerals, the mountains of Greece are prin- cipally limestone. Very few cities or villages of the kingdom are far from a limestone quarry, and the houses are frequently built of this material, many of the best buildings being faced or ornamented with marble. Most of the houses, however, are built of stone and stuccoed on the outside—and often on the inside—and painted in good imitation of marble. This stucco lasts many years on the exterior of buildings in Greece, where frost is seldom seen, and is cheaper than marble. In some country villages, where the quar- ries are very far away or the roads are bad, houses are often built of sun-dried brick, but in parts of northern Greece, especially in the small villages of Thessaly, houses are built by first erecting a frame of willow poles and rods and then covering this wickerwork with a coating of mud or clay mortar. Sun-dried bricks are used in considerable quantities. The humbler houses in the suburbs of the cities of Athens, Pirwus, and Patras, and in many villages where stone is not plenti- ful or easy of access, are built of sun-dried bricks. In fact, in some villages the houses are nearly all built of this material. Many fences or walls throughout the country are composed of blocks of clay one yard square and half a yard thick, made in a manner some- what similar to the manufacture of sun-dried bricks. The bricks, as the name implies, are dried by the heat of the sun only. They vary in color, according to the color of the clay used, and measure about twelve by six by two and a half inches. These bricks are made in every village, town, and farm in Greece that bas clay, and there are few places in the kingdom that have no clay deposits. Kiln-dried or burned bricks are manufactured in or near Athens, Volo, Chalkis, Pyrgos, and elsewhere in Greece; they are of a hard quality and usually of a very light cream color. It is said that no soft kiln-burned bricks are made. Kiln- burned bricks are used for the erection of chimneys in factories, foundries, ete., partitions in buildings, bakers’ ovens and furnaces, and sometimes for build ing drains and sewers. Iron chimneys or “smoke stacks” are seldom erected. On account of the limited use of kiln-burned bricks in Greece, the manufactories of this material are few. There are but four or five of importance, and even these do not make bricks ex- clusively—they also manufacture tiles. Like the sun- dried, the kiln-burned bricks are made by hand, the only machinery used being the simple “mixer” pro- pelled by horse power. One man can mold 3,000 bricks each day. After the bricks are molded they are al- lowed to be in the sun until partially dried, and stiff enough to handle easily. They are then built up in an “open work” manner, so that the heat from the fire can reach each brick. The fuel used is nearly always wood, and the fire, never very hot, is kept up for about fifteen days.—Journal of the Society of Arts.

THE METEOR OF THE SOUDAN.*

Last November I received from M. H. Minod, of Geneva, some fragments of a metallic substance which had been sent to him as a meteorite. He had de- tached them from a mass of 37.750 kilogrammes, of which he had the kindness to send a cast and some excellent photographs. According to the accompany- ing papers, this mass had fallen from the sky on June 15, 1900, making in the dry soil a hole more than one meter in depth in N’Goureyma, province of Macina, in the Soudan. (N’Goureyma is situated to the west of Djenné, 62 kilometers from the left bank of the Niger, and a little to the north of Kookourou, which is the harbor of Djenné.)

The external form of the metallic mass is of a very irregular slab, whose greatest length is 58 centimeters and width quite variable, from 4 centimeters at one extremity to 29 centimeters at about three-fourths of its length. The thickness is 5 millimeters at the nar- rowest extremity and it attains 10 centimeters in the widest region. The two faces of this slab differ ex- ceedingly. That which is the most uneven is divided at first glance into two adjoining parts: a dome-like projection occupying a little less than a quarter of a quite regular sphere, and a part filled with protuber- ances. The projection is covered with strie radiating from a point situated on one of its edges, just at the maximum thickness of the slab. The diverging strie are similar to those seen on the front face of many meteorites; they argue consequently for the cosmic origin of the mass. These furrows are due to the rapid impact of currents of air loaded with dust, against the face of the projectile during its atmos- pheric passage. They can be imitated by plunging fragments of chalk into chlorhydric acid: the violent effervescence causes currents, which quickly exhibit their action in the form of grooves, whose resemblance to those which have been mentioned is very instruc- tive. Ridges similar to those of the spheroid part are found on different portions of the battered part of the same face, and radiating from the same pole. We must conclude that this common point of divergence was the front of the projectile during its passage. It is certain that the same disposition would result from freeing erosive gases on a point of a metallic surface, as well as by the explosion of a cartridge of dynamite. The reverse of the block presented strie# much less numerous and less regularly co-ordinated. If a bit of chalk suspended by a thread is plunged into acid, it will be found that, while its lower surface takes the character of the front of the stone, the upper side, where the eddies of the liquid are quite different from

* Translated for the Screntiric AMERICAN SuppLemMENT from the French of M, Stanislas Meunier, Paper presented to the Academie des Sciences,

1424, 22523

simple ascending currents, resembles the reverse. As to the rounded cupules on both faces of the slab, ex- cept in the spheroidal region, it is at once apparent, and confirmed by comparison with those on the chalk, that they represent the simple wearing down of fissures originally angular. In two points these cupules are so deep as to show a perforation of the block.

Notwithstanding its singular appearance this slab of N’Goureyma is not without analogy among méteor- ites; it resembles the mass which fell May 27, 1886, at Cabin Creek, Arkansas.

At several points on the surface of the iron of N’Goureyma, are seen remains of a black and bril- liant coating, similar to the crust with which all meteorites are enveloped. This crust can be recognized in the photographs, and several of the fragments sent me bear evident traces of it. It consists mostly of magnetic iron oxide and differs in no perceptible characteristic from the crust of the iron of Braunau, with which I have carefully compared it.

The iron constituting the black is very compact and quite malleable. Its fracture is fibrous, almost schist- ous, and it has a peculiar luster. The metal, which is easily scratched with a knife, takes a beautiful polish; its section presents some strange substances in the form of black inclusions, whose outlines resemble Arabian characters.

The density of a very peculiar fragment weighing 4.130 grammes, having a small piece of crust on one of its faces, has been fcund to be 7.31.

The metal is remarkable for its feeble solubility in acids. Cold, its solution in chlorhydric acid is ex- tremely slow; after more than eighteen hours, the fragment of 4.130 grammes had still preserved its form and primitive volume at the boiling point

Under the action of chlorhydric acid, a polished sur- face is slowly tarnished, some hydrogen bubbles are set free, and the liquid becomes impregnated with iron; but the Wiedman-Statten figures are not to be seen. It may be interesting to ascertain whether it has not in its thick portion a different structure from that of its thin section, which alone has been so far studied.

The analysis has been made on the small fragment of 4.130 grammes, already employed for the density; the results have been verified on different samples, which have been treated in different ways according to the conditions. I commenced by investigating the insoluble substances, and I ascertained that they rep- resented 0.169 per cent of the entire weight. Under the microscope numerous lithoidal colorless grains are to be seen, of which many are very active in polarized light and are brilliantly colored. A small quantity of carbonaceous matter was treated for phosphorus; its discovery dicated the presence of schreibersite or of an analogous phosphide.

The disengagement of hydrogen sulphide in the sclution was evident, and a small piece dissolved in aqua regia has yielded a precipitate of barium sul phate corresponding to 0.052 per cent of iron proto sulphide.

Of nickel, analysis has revealed in a first sample 6.81 per cent and in a second 7.50 per cent; say, an average of 7.15 per cent, the variations being ex plained by the heterogeneity of the mass. I have per- ceived traces of cobalt and ascertained the absence of copper and tin.

The composition of the iron of N’'Goureyma may be thus expressed: Iron, 91.988; nickel, 7.150; traces of cobalt; ferric sulphide 0.052; ferric phosphide, silicated grains, graphite (preponderating) 0.169; total 99.359 per cent.

It would be premature to attempt to determine the lithological type to which it belongs, since a large section has not yet been made.

KITES AS METEOROLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS

Some interesting investigations into the temperature of the upper strata of the air have been carried out at Newcastle, England, by means of a new kite, which is in reality an aeroplane, the invention of Mr. 8S. F. Cody The principal feature of this kite is that it can be used when the atmosphere is practically still, so that the air may be investigated with the metrograph which it car ries under varying conditions. The temperature record of this instrument is obtained by the expansion and con traction of a composition metal plate and is graduated on the Centigrade system: the humidity is recorded by the elongation of human hair in proportion to the moisture present. The height is measured by the ordi nary vacuum tube aneroid barometer. The wind veloc ity is registered by the cup system of anemometer, each small line or dot indicating 1.000 meters of wind. The interior or framework of the instrument as well as the encasement or box, is constructed of aluminium so as to insure the minimum of weight with the maximum of strength. The chronograph in the calendar is sim- ilar to those to be found in ordinary standard instru- ments except that it is much lighter. One prominent advantage of this instrument is the attachment of the anemometer underneath. The instrument is not held in one direction to the wind by a rudder, but is al- lowed to swing to and fro and revolve backward and forward, giving the atmosphere an equal pressure on all sides of it, without interfering in any way with the anemometer. The metrograph weighs 3% pounds, and is attached to the first or pilot kite by means of a cord which is about 150 feet long. Mr. Cody's method of making flight for meteorological purposes consists of an aeroplane, fastened to a galvanized thimble at the end of the main wire, to which a cord, 150 feet in length, with the metrograph is attached. The kite is then allowed to rise and unreels the wire according to its pull or strain. The wire is regulated by an auto matic brake. When the wire sags or the angle above the horizon becomes low, other kites are added by means of a steel spring clamp, through which the main wire is laced. The number of kites attached to the wire depends on the size of the kites, as the more there are added the stronger is the wire used. After a pause at the attainable altitude the kites are drawn down. The pauses at the highest point and when the kites are attached or detached, are necessary to allow the recording instrument to acquire the conditions of the surrounding air.

22824

RESULTS OF A NAVAL INQUIRY AS TO WHICH IS THE MOST POWERFUL ARMOR- CLAD AFLOAT.

Wuicu is the most powerful armorclad of all the navies of the world? Admitting that the value of a war vessel is nothing more than a compromise be- tween various qualities that it is difficult to reconcile (such as speed, the weight of the engines, armor, and artillery, the tonnage, length of the vessel, radius of action, etc.), we may inquire whether this is not asking a trifling question, and whether it is possible even to determine accurately what vessel it is that, in a battle, would be found to contain all the means of action quite judiciously associated.

What is the criterion for defining the respective importance of the qualities of an armorclad? Is the speed, which affords the capability of fleeing from or pursuing an adversary, worthy of more consideration than the artillery, which permits of demolishing him, or than the armor, which permits of defying his pro- jectiles?

The only means of reaching an approximate result is to question those whose business it is to construct such masterpieces of mechanics and whose mission it is to command them—the naval constructors and the most compet*~t navy officers of the principal nations of the world A general average of their opinions would give the solution sought. It was for patient, methodical, and studious Germany to call forth this new sort of plebiscite

In the train of the criticisms formulated against the German armorclads, and under the inspiration, it is said, of Prince Henry of Prussia, various reviews (Marine Rundschau, Ueberall, and Armee und Marine) were officially invited to submit the following subject to study: Which is the best armorclad of all the navies? The question was proposed to the most cele-

SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT, No. 1424.

the opinion that, although ten years ago England stood in the first rank with the “Majestic” type, she has hesitated in the elaboration of subsequent ones. The English fleet has been reduced to the four fol- lowing types:

The “Majestic” series: 9 units, speed, 16.5 knots; burden, 14,900 tons; artillery, 4 large 12-inch guns, 12 6-inch guns, called medium pieces, and 16 3-inch guns; armor 10 inches in thickness, extending to 10 feet above the load water line for 55-100 of the length of the ship.

The “Canopus” series: 6 units, speed, 18 knots; burden, 12,950 tons; artillery, the same; armor 6 inches in thickness and extending, for half the length of the vessel, 9 feet above the load water line.

The “Formidable” series: 6 units, speed 17 knots; burden, 14,900 tons; artillery, the same; armor 8.5 inches in thickness and extending, for two-thirds of the length of the vessel, to an increased height of 14.75 feet above the load water line. -

The “Duncan” series: 6 units, speed 18 knots; ton- nage, the same; partial armor of 7 inches thickness for two-thirds of the length of the vessel, and extend- ing 14.75 feet above the load water line.

From a preliminary examination, it is seen that the hesitation of the English constructors related to the thickness and arrangement of the armor. Al- though faithful to great tonnages, the British Admiral- ty does not seem to have derived from such advantage all the profit possible. From the “Majestic” to the “Duncan” we see no progress except in speed and radius of action. This is important, it is true, but perhaps these two improvements find their counter- part in the diminution of the thickness of the armor.

The French officers (Captains Vignot and de Balin- court) prefer the “Duncan.” Rear Admiral Bettolo is of the opinion that the “Prince of Wales” (“Formid- able” type), put upon the stocks in 1901, is the best

Apri 18, 1908,

partial armor of 9 inches at the load water line, and carrying 800 tons of coal.

The “Wittelsbach” has a displacement of 11,800 tons, a speed of 18.5 knots, and a complete armor of 9 inches thickness, rising but 28 inches from the load water line. She carries 1,000 tons of coal.

It was the unanimous opinion of the arbiters, that since the “Wittelsbach” was a much improved “Kaiser,” it would have te be taken as a term of comparison with the foreign types.

IIL.

The zeal that the United States displays in the de- velopment of its navy has made itself felt in the judicious selection of types as well as by the number and importance of the armored units put upon the stocks.

After adhering to average tonnages (12,000), the American constructors, in imitation of the continental powers of Europe, have not hesitated to have recourse to great displacements, thinking that, although the mastodons of 15,000 tons have their drawbacks (high price and greater vulnerability), they possess ad- ventages which compensate therefor.

For a country as rich as the United States, which has just raised its naval appropriation to $80,000,- 000, and which aspires to rival England herself upon the ocean, it was but reasonable to construct vessels capable of bidding defiance to the most recent speci- mens of the British navy. This has been realized with the “Georgia” type, the construction of which was begun in 1900. This type, embracing five ex- amples, the “Nebraska,” “Georgia,” “Virginia,” “New Jersey,” and “Rhode Island,” is really formidable. Its features are: An armored belt 11 inches in thick- ness at the load water line and extending the entire length of the vessel; a speed of 18 knots; a very for- midable armament (four 12-inch, eight 8-inch, twelve

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UNITED STATES “GEORGIA.”

JAPANESE “ MIKASA.”

ITALIAN “VITTORIO EMMANUELE.”

brated naval experts in the world with the request that an answer should be given. The responses have been received. Captain Vignot, the head of M. Pelle- tan’s cabinet, and Captain de Balincourt answered for France; His Royal Highness, the Grand-duke Alex- ander Michaelovitch, Captain Wieren, and Prof. Klado, of the Maritime Academy of St. Petersburg, for Russia; Rear Admiral Bettolo, former Minister of the Marine, Jack La Bolina, and Colonel Cuniberti, Chief of Naval Construction at Tarentum, for Italy; Captain Yamada and M. Massuo, Chief Naval Con- structor, for Japan; Captains X and Z (who desired to preserve anonymity), for Austria-Hungary; Rear- Admiral Cervera, of Santiago fame, for Spain; Admiral Hopkins, ex-Commander-in-Chief of thé English Squad- ron of the Mediterranean, and Naval Architect Mack- row, for England; Herren Krestchmer, Sub-director of Naval Constructions, and von Scheve, for Germany; and Captains Mahan, Bowles, and others for the United States. Although two or three answers have not been published (it is not known why), it is now possible to judge of the inquiry in its entirety. The process followed was that of determining at the outset the best armorclad in each navy, and then comparing with each other the best types retained, and finally making the classification.

Honor to whom honor is due. Since the English navy, as regards number, is the only one of the first rank (the others being only of second rank), does it possess a type of ship that ought to attract the atten- tion of constructors? Have the engineers of the United Kingdom aimed at a positive finality in speed, armor, artillery, and coal-bunker capacity, or do their ships constitute a compromise between theSe qualities? As regards this, the inquiry is formal. All the arbiters are of accord in recognizing the power of the British fleet as a whole, but they are almost unanimous in

vessel of the British navy. Of the two Austrians, one prefers the “Formidable” and the other the “Dun- can,” because of the armor, the radius of action, or the speed. Colonel Cuniberti puts himself on record as being in favor of the “Formidable,” but immediate- ly adds the curious comment that even a “Majestic,” improved in artillery and with its trial speed pre- served, would be the most powerful ship of the Eng- lish navy. In a general way, there was a majority in favor of the “Formidable,” although the “Duncan” re- ceived a certain number of votes. The “Canopus” was the only one of the series that did not have a single partisan.

II.

The German Admiralty, obedient to the suggestions made by Emperor William himself, has endeavored to obtain in its ships a superiority in speed and artil- lery, in preference to radius of action and armor. To crush the enemy under an avalanche of projectiles in the shortest time possible, and to be in a position to pursue him and hold him constantly under fire, seems to have been the dominant objective of the bureau of German naval construction and of its eminent super- intendent, Herr Dietrich. Unfortunately, on account of the shoalness of its coast, it was impossible to exceed burdens of 11,000 or 12,000 tons. The German constructors, being obliged to give armorclads no more than from 23 to 24.5 feet draft, were in a disadvantage- ous position as regards foreign rivals.

Out of the ten ships constructed since 1897 (year of the Naval Septennial), five belong to what is called the “Kaiser” series, bearing the names of the prin- cipal German emperors, and five to the “Wittelsbach” series, bearing the names of the houses reigning in the states of the empire.

The “Kaiser” type, the first in date, and already in service, is a vessel of 12,000 tons and 18 knots, with a

ITALIAN “BENEDETTO BRIN.”

6-inch, and twelve 3-inch guns); and a very wide radius of action, since the ship is capable of carrying as much as 1,900 tons of coal. These various char- acteristics class it among the most remarkable speci- mens of all navies. But what must be remembered for the instant is that its superiority over all the types that have preceded it, such as the “Maine” and “Alabama,” is unquestionable, since these, although pretty well protected, have neither the same radius of action nor, especially, the same offensive power. With the exception of one arbiter, M. Massuo, of Japan, whose choice was the “Maine,” all the arbiters judged that the best American vessel was the “Pennsylvania.”

IV.

Continuing our tour of the world, we reach Japan. It must be agreed that the young navy of the Rising Sun holds a proud place, not only by reason of the magnificent improvements found in its new fleet, but also because of the judicious and skillful advertise- ment that its English constructors and its officers have been able to give it. The Japanese vessels (all of 15,000 tons) were built in British shipyards with the exception of the “Asahi,” which was constructed at the yards of the Loire. Several English construc- tors, and, among others, Mr. Mackrow, naval architect at the Thames yards, who was the engineer that elab- orated their plans, exhibit great enthusiasm for the navy of this Oriental England.

Mr. Mackrow writes that, of all his work (the “Schikishima,” “Mikasa,” and “Hatsuse”), the “Schi- kishima” is the masterpiece. It is a “Majestic,” much better protected, formidably armed, and swifter, but having a more limited radius of action.

But it was the “Mikasa,” with its rather thin (6- inch) armor greatly elevated above the water, its armored redoubt and its fourteen 6-inch guns em- placed within a central citadel and in casemate, that

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obtained the preference in a general way. Its

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The new Russian programme includes seven armor- clad vessels, nearly contemporaneous—the “Slava,” “Orel,” “Borodino,” “Souvaroff,” “Alexander III.,” “Retwisan,” and “Cesarevitch.” The “Retwisan” was built by the Cramps at Philadelphia. The “Cesare- vitch” is now under trial at La Seyne. As for the others, they are not much advanced.

These ships, after they have once been finished, will constitute compromises. An endeavor is making to give them the greatest qualities of endurance at sea, without seeking a high speed. Their radius of action is equal to that of the most recent English armorclads (they carry 2,000 tons of coal), despite a much less displacement (13,600 tons).

Some of these vessels, among them the “Cesarevitch” and “Alexander III.,” have a complete armor belt of 10 inches thickness extending the entire length of the load water line. The medium guns are in turrets, thus permitting of a very wide field of firing, and are protected by a light armor, thinner than that of the load water line. The “Borodino” recalls the English type, with its thick armor, but partially protecting the load water line of the ship, and its speed of 19 knots. But, since the artillery seems to be better distributed upon the “Cesarevitch,” the majority of the naval ex- perts thought that the superiority of one knot of speed in the efficiency of the “Borodino” did not com- pensate for the inequality of the armor and the differ-

speed of nearly 19 knots classes it among the fastest of its

ye HM

SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT, No

this, that these two types of vessels were the subject of complimentary remarks among almost all of the arbiters, and that Italy alone saw two of her ships classed among the first six of the competition. This is a truly curious fact.

VII.

It remains for us to speak of France. What is thought in other countries of the French armorclads that have provoked so many commentaries among us— extolled by some, and decried by others? Alas! it did not take long to make a choice in regard to us, since, on the one hand, our new programme of con- struction, which comprises six armorclads of 14,800 tons, is scarcely rough-drafted and could hardly at- tract the attention of foreigners, and, on the other, the only armorclad that we have in the process of completion, the “Suffren,” is too much superior to those that have preceded it (the “Jena,” “Saint Louis,” “Charlemagne,” “Gaulois,” etc.) to allow of any hesi- tation.

Despite the antiquity of its plans, which date back to the year 1897, the “Suffren” seems to have pro- duced a favorable impression by the harmonious en- semble of its qualities. Its armor (12 inches in thick- ness) extends throughout the entire load water line of the ship, and rises to 4 feet above the water line. Its artillery (half in casemate and half in turrets) is very well protected by a light armor of 4.5 inches in thickness, and the large fore-and-aft guns are coupled in a turret protected by 12-inch armor plate. Its offensive power (four 12-inch, ten 6.5-inch, and eight 4-inch guns, and twenty small pieces) is com-

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1424.

22825

(a) The necessary and sufficient quality of a ship of war consists in keeping the enemy at a given fight- ing distance, so that a judicious advantage can be derived from the artillery; whence the necessity of a constant speed.

(b) The second quality resides in the possibility of withstanding the enemy’s fire as long as possible. For this purpose it is necessary to have an armor of the greatest thickness and greatest extension possible.

(c) The artillery holds the third rank, since it is incapable of fully performing its mission until after the realization of the preceding conditions.

(d) The capacity of the coal bunkers and the ability to keep at sea come last, these two qualities playing of themselves no great réle, but serving solely to as- sume the execution of motions after a battle.

And the grand-duke gives the first prize to the armorclad “Georgia” of the United States.

Col. Cuniberti is a speed fanatic, and pronounces himself in favor of the ship that best realizes such desideratum, viz., the “Vittorio Emmanuele.” M. Massuo, the director of naval construction of Japan, evokes the lessons of the naval battle of the Yalu in support of a perfect armoring.

The most sensible answer is certainly that of Cap- tain de Balincourt, one of the two French experts. It is, so to speak, established mathematically. Ac- cording to this eminent maritime writer, a normal armorclad should have a length of 410 feet, carry at least 1,000 tons of coal, and have a continuous armor at least 6 inches thick, as well as thinner armor also, and turrets for the artillery. As regards the arma-

BRITISH *“ FORMIDABLE.”

RUSSIAN ‘CESAREVITCH.”

ence in the protection of the artillery. They, in gen- eral, selected the “Cesarevitch” as the type of the best Russian vessel, either under construction or afloat.

VI.

In Italy, Admiral Moran, Minister of the Marine, upon recently responding to various interpellations rela- tive to the navy, expressed his pleasure at the spirit that presides in the construction of the new Italian armorclads. “Our engineers thought,” exclaimed he, “that speed is the primordial quality of warships, because it permits of accepting or refusing a battle. This is why the protected cruisers ‘Regina Margherita’ and ‘Benedetto Brin,’ and, to a greater degree, the ‘Vittorio Emmanuele’ and the ‘Regina Elena,’ with their respective speeds of 20 and 22 knots, their great supply of coal (2,000 tons) will, in my opinion, con- stitute the most perfect squadron that has ever sailed under the flag of the House of Savoy.”

These two groups of vessels, of which the character- istics are not very different, and the suggester of which was the lamented M. Brin, one of the most remarkable engineers of the nineteenth century, are well worthy of attention by the fact that the “Brin” type associates artillery with speed (the armor not exceeding 6 inches) and that the “Vittorio Emmanu- ele” type associates a thick armor (10 inches), continu- ous and very high above the water, with a speed of 22 knots, worthy of a protected cruiser. The artillery of the “Vittorio Emmanuele” (two 12-inch guns, twelve 8-inch upon the sides, and twelve 3-inch) is not so powerful as that of the “Benedetto Brin,” but is per- haps more judiciously distributed. It results from

parable to that of the best specimens of foreign coun- tries. Finally, its speed (18 knots) and the capacity of its coal bunkers (1,300 tons) give it a fast and wide range. Such as it is, or rather as it will be, for it has not as yet finished its trials, the “Suffren” marks a notable progress over the other vessels of the French Navy. Two German engineers who have amused themselves in rating international ships of war ac- cording to their naval efficiency, have given the “Suf- fren” a figure almost double that of the “Charle- magne” and a third higher than that of the “Jena.” VITS.

To sum up, the international champions of the com- petition are as follows:

For England, the “Formidable” and “Duncan” types (15,000 tons).

For Germany, the “Wittelsbach” type (11,800 tons).

For the United States, the “Georgia” type (15,000 tons).

For Japan, the “Mikasa” type (15,200 tons).

For Russia, the “Cesarevitch” type (13,500 tons).

For Italy, the “Vittorio Emmanuele” (12,600 tons) and the “Benedetto Brin” (13,700 tons) types.

For France, the “Suffren” (12,700 tons).

To whom should the palm be given?

It will be understood that the arbiters, in order to effect their classification, had to explain what, in their opinion, possessed the greatest value in a ship of war— the speed, the armor, the artillery, or the radius of ac- tion. Their verdict has naturally felt the effect of such preliminary consideration.

The response of Grand-duke Alexander is curious, and is as follows:

FRENCH “SUFFREN.”

ment, which is variable, its offensive power can be figured mathematically, by giving, for example, the

coefficient 1 to guns of 3 inches, 2 to those of 3.5 inches, 2.5 to those of 4 inches, 3.5 to those of 5.5 inches, 4 to those of 6 inches, 4.5 to those of 6.5 inches,

5 to those of 8 inches, 5.5 to those of 9.5 inches, 6 to those of 10 inches, and 8 to those of 12 inches.

An example will permit this theory to be understood. The “Suffren” carries four 12-inch, ten 6.5-inch, and eight 4-inch guns. Its artillery coefficient will there- fore be:

4x8+10X 45+8 X 2.5 = 97.

As the “Vittorio Emmanuele” ‘carries two 12-inch, twelve 8-inch, and twelve 3-inch guns, its artillery coefficient will be:

2x8+12xX5+12 X1= 88.

Finally, according to the arrangement of the armor or to the extent of the radius of action, peculiar rat- ings are fixed, in regard to which we cannot give more lengthy details, but which, from the preceding data, can be easily imagined. 2

1X.

- In conclusion, we give a complete table of all the classifications. In drawing this up we have taken into account precise answers solely, since several arbiters, while entering into lengthy considerations as to the present ships of war, have not thought it in- cumbent upon them to offer categorical solutions.

It results from this table that the “Vittorio Em- manuele” (classed"five times first. once second, once third, and twice fourth out of the fourteen arbitra- tions) may be considered as the most powerful armor-

| | | | |

= | | | = 3 | ja} , & ‘ : = < . 5 = 1% 5 is! El is e - HIE Slelgislal .| .|z ; 3/825 |sisls| s/SiSlelaly Names of Ships Classified, RISl& i Sisisi-is/TIs 3 & 2/2/58 ISiFlol-leleleis <|-/=|—/SlaiSi@lsleisisisia lel lElESiSlelSiSle/ 3/215 leis siSlaleisisia 2 zis 5/£/3|2/2 | S| 5/Ala/ aS \</s ~ > he 3} 2/5 >| B/S > pd isi se 2) ee |2| 2S dlsleleldigiele 5)S/£]5 bala lS|E| 2/8 |S 16/5 ———— _ —— -| “|| - | -] * Vittorio’ ‘l'ype. } | (Italian,) “ Vittorio Emmanuele™....... | 1 Hid 1| 4 ** Regina Elena” ........ eves 2 3 } 4 “ Brin” we oan : 5} 2 “ Georgia * Type (United States.) | “ Georgia”... none pes 1] * Nebraska } | “ Virginia” ove ereccece 2 | “ New Jersey obec 4 | 2 $4 “Rhode Island” oe : ke “ Formidable * Ty pe (Engiish.) * Formidable ”..., see 3 <_§ »erreree ‘ “ Implacable ™ 6 *Bulwark”’.... 4 l "Queen ”’ .... 3 * Duncan” see os ‘ 6} 2 4 66 * Mikasa” Type (Japanese, ) Mikasa“ ocee o 1 ‘ ! 1 * Hateuse ’ @ evcecees * Asahi” seeece coe 2 RT segnuéese «coneser (Grerman,) “ Wittelebach * o00e: ceccccce 3 ’ 6 7 Cesarevitch ” Type (Rusesian.) = sh Eee . oe ‘ ** Cesarevitch ....... ° 2 7 MP enchsdeseccocconenes l (French.) SR ccntece coc eoucses ‘ fie 4 13) 5

clad of all the navies of the world. The “Suffren” comes fourth, after the “Mikasa” and the “Georgia,” and before the English “Formidable” and the German “Wittelsbach.”—Translated for the Scientiric AMERI- CAN SuppLement, from the French of J. Delaporte, in L' Illustration

LIBBEY’S TRAVELS IN ANCIENT SYRIA.

For the purpose of settling some moot questions in the geographical history of that portion of Syria of the extreme northern part of the Jordan Valley, ex tending southward to the famous rock city of Petra beyond the Dead Sea, Prof. Libbey, of Princeton Uni- versity, made a most thorough exploration. In a recent lecture before the American Geographical So- ciety, Prof. Libbey showed a series of views which he took. Not the least striking were pictures of the ruins of a very large town built by the Romans dur- ing their occupation of the country. Much of the bridgework and walls of the city are fairly well pre- served; earthquakes, however, have done much to hasten the work of destruction Engineering of a high order was displayed in the construction of much of the mammoth masonry Many of the massive pil- lars still stand. Some are partly twisted on their foundations, showing that they have been subjected to undulating movements of the surface. Two views picture the tiers of stone seats in Roman amphithea- ters, one of which had a seating capacity of 4,000 and the other of 6,000 persons. Those were the days when the water resources of Syria were more scientifically husbanded than they are to-day, and vast areas, now arid stone slopes and plains, were covered with fertile flelds

Another very interesting view showed the few traces that now remain of the ancient city of the god Pan, famous for its so-called religious ceremonies of an indescribable character and for its proud citadel at the very source of the Jordan, above the chasm into which were hurled the victims immolated at the sacri- ficial altar

These were merely typical views of scores of pic- tures shown by the lecturer. The culmination of the pictorial features was the numerous views of Petra, which at the very dawn of history was the capital of the region that is now the southernmost part of Syria This was a city of stone in a pre-eminent sense, and its site is no more wonderful than the remarkable ap- proach to it through a gorge only a few yards in width, a mere fissure in the rocks rising to a height of several hundred feet on either side and even at noon admitting only a few dim rays of the sun.

If the proposed railroad from Damascus to Mecca is ever completed, it will pass only a short distance to the east of Petra; but it is doubtful if even this facil- ity would largely increase the number of tourists to the rock city on account of the extreme difficulties of the approach to its site. Most ancient towns of that region were built for protective purposes on the tops of hills, but Petra, for the same reason, was built on a low plain inclosed on all sides by rocks and moun- tains which are almost impassable. The route to this inclosure will have to be greatly improved before it is visited by many tourists; and yet what is left of the handiwork of man at Petra may be classed among the wonders of the world.

The most remarkable monuments are those cut in the rock itself. Prof. Libbey showed photographs of temples, with their colonnades and facades cut out of this sandstone, their architectural beauty still almost unimpaired. The effect is rendered still more striking by the variegated and vivid coloring of the rock. Far and wide on the faces of these rock masses, palaces and tombs have been let into the red, purple, and yel- low cliffs superimposed one above another.

Tradition says that the earliest inhabitants of this district were troglodytes whosé first rude grottoes, shapeless caverns hollowed out of the hillsides, were later transformed into architectural galleries deco- rated with statues and bas-reliefs, No one knows

SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMEN'I, No. 1494.

when the people who have left these wonderful works of their hands perished or disappeared; but the many pictures of the place showed this city of the wilder- ness, now a vast metropolis, with many hundreds of tombs climbing the heights of the hillsides.

Another view showed the mosque which crowns Mount Hor, the culminating point of the Idumzan highlands. The top of this mountain is the traditional grave of Aaron and the mosque was built at this lofty altitude in honor of the first high priest of the Israel- ites.

THE BERBER TRIBES OF NORTH AFRICA.

An interesting lecture was delivered before the Royal Service Institution of London by Mr. George Babington Michell upon “The Berber Tribes of North Africa,” dealing with the origin and customs of these people. Mr. Michell is an expert authority upon the races and languages of North Africa, having spent fifteen years in Morocco in, the study and investigation of the anthropology, etc., of these tribes.. Although the origin of these races is still unknown, everything seems to point to four distinct sources, since though considerably intermixed there are. evidences of four strains, three probably European,: viz., the Iberian, from Spain; the fair Libyan, partly from the Grecian archipelago; and the Celte-Ligurian, from Italy; and an aboriginal African stock the Gaetulian. The Ber- ber languages also indicate, though not so clearly, a fourfold origin, classified as the Saharan or Twarik, the midland or Zanati, the northern or Kabyle, and the Riff sections. The ancient monuments of these tribes —negalithic structures—existed in great quantities in all the Barbary States. These so closely resemble the cromlechs, etc., found in Celtic countries that there ap- pears little doubt of their identity of origin. Another feature is the rock tombs and other burial customs. With regard to the Libyan inscriptions, which are fairly abundant, Mr. Michell doubts their correct decipherment hitherto. Of the customs of the present day, the most remarkable is troglodytism, or cave dwelling, which has been practised in many parts since prehistoric times. To this practice Mr. Michell traces the name of “Africa,” derived from the Libyan root “Ifri,” a cave, a name still extant in the Jebel Yefreu, a cave-dwelt chain of mountains between Tunis and Tripoli. Other noteworthy customs are the*royal and feudal systems of the Twariks, the village republics of the Kabyles, and the peculiar kind of art resembling the ancient Greek and Etruscan models. Among the Twariks, too, is the curious inversion of the position of women among Moslem nations. There the men are veiled and the women are free; the latter are edu- cated and the men are illiterate. The feudal system of families of lords, with whole tribes of vassals under their sway, and the royal marriage customs show clear signs of composite origin. The theory is advanced that perhaps the ruling caste are descended from the Cretan and other European immigrations into Cyranaica described by Herodotus, while the servile races might have come from the East, and perhaps from the Sabean peoples of Arabia. As for the history of North Africa, the indications of the monuments of Egypt of a fair Libyan race and the statements of Herodotus, Diodorus, and Sallust, all support the theory of a four-fold origin of the native tribes. The Byzan- tine historians gave interesting details of local customs, etc., but they throw no light on the source from which the Aborigines sprang. As for the native historians, rone is at all trustworthy, except Ibn Khaldun, and even he cannot be relied upon as to anything before his own time. It is clear, however, from this great Berber acionist, that the various tribes then naturally fell into four main divisions. These various lines of inquiry seem to suggest that a horde of short, dark folk left Arabia in prehistoric times, crossed the Red Sea into southern Abyssinia, and divided into three branches, one going south into Mashonaland, another west into the central Soudan, and the third northwest into Barbary. From these, primitive men crossed into Europe, where their remains are still found in caves in many places. In north Africa these tribes were afterward met by hordes of Iberians from Spain and of Celts from Gaul and Italy. Into eastern Barbary the early Greeks sent numerous colonists who evi- dently established a permanent ascendency over their predecessors.

THE “ALL STATIONS EXPRESS.”

AT a recent conversazione of the Sheffield Literary and Philosophical Society, a model of the All Stations Express invention of John Brown, F.R.S., Dunmurry, Belfast, Ireland, was exhibited.

The model revealed one of the possibilities of the adaptation of electric power to our railways, and illus- trated the automatic working, by means of appropriate self-acting switches and couplings, of a new class of electric railway—namely, one which will avoid the delay involved in stopping “local” trains at all sta- tions, though only a fraction of the passengers wish to enter or alight at any one station. The model pro- vides a through train for every passenger from any station to any other, and dispels all anxiety or doubt about alighting at a wrong station or being. carried past the right one. The scheme can be best worked by electric motors. Steam locomotives would be quite inapplicable, presumably on account of the danger of powerful collisions, with consequent telescoping. The model; as seen in the working, reminded one of the Liverpool overhead electric railway, but was an im- provement upon this. An endless railway was repre- sented, with coaches arranged ready for starting the day’s work. The coaches are of the corridor type, or like American vestibule cars, giving a passage right through the train. Each carriage has its own separate motor, and can thus be run independently. A train consisting of, say, four coaches starts from station A. As it approaches station B a coach standing there is started by the driver in charge of it, and sufficient speed given to it to allow it to be picked up between stations B and C by the following train. There is no more difficulty in picking up a coach in steady motion in this way than there is in, say, one of Sheffield’s electric cars running gently up to another at rest, It

Apri. 18, 1908.

is merely a question of relative motion, and, with electric motors, the speed would be easily and quickly controlled. Signal-boxes could be arranged appro priately to eliminate any possible risk. The rear coach it will be understood, is dropped at each station th

TRADE NOTES AND RECIPES.

Siceative Ocher and Spar.—Yellow ocher is found in many parts of the earth in rich deposits, the former Electorate of Hesse being especially rich in this prod uct. It is a ferric oxide compound, and is chiefly used for paint. However handsome, especially the gold ochers are, their drying quality is slight compared with that of yellow lead and zinc yellow. If the ocher is mixed with yellow lead or zinc yellow, its qualities are not changed much, unless very large quantities of the metallic compounds are added.

The same property is exhibited by heavy spar. An- other course, therefore, has to be pursued, the follow- ing method yielding good products:

I. Siccative Ocher.—In a stirring vat mix 100 kilos of sugar of lead, 2,000 kilos of ocher, 2,000 kilos of hot water, boiling for about one-half hour; during the mixing add a solution of 360 kilos of potassium bichro- mate, 160 kilos of calcined soda in 10,000 kilos of hot water; boil up thoroughly, and finally add 300 kilos of hydrate of soda dissolved in 500 kilos of water; boil up thoroughly for about one hour, and then allow to settle. An ocher of brilliant color is obtained at the bottom, while a weak solution of potassium chromate is on top. Decant twice with hot water, filter off and dry at moderate heat. After the drying the ocher is ground and then possesses entirely different properties than before. Instead of drying only in eight days, it dries with linseed oil in twenty-four hours, is very brilliant and of considerable covering power, which are all qualities not possessed before by the natural ocher.

II. Heavy spar is treated in the same manner and thereby acquires a handsome pale red coloring body, which possesses very excellent properties as paint ma- terial. With linseed oil it dries in twenty-four hours. If you can choose between ocher and heavy spar, it is best to work with the latter, since it dries quicker after the precipitation than ocher, is heavier in weight, of better covering power and really handsome in color.

It will be seen from these two examples that the field of the siccative colors is yet largely unworked. The chemical process is as follows: First, neutral lead chromate is precipitated with the ocher or spar, which is then transformed by boiling with soda lye into basic lead chromate of a handsome fire-red hue, while some potassium chromate passes into solution which can be used again for subsequent precipitations. Chrome yel- low and chrome red are known to possess strong drying properties, which are, of course, imparted to the ocher or the spar, respectively. It is hardly conceivable, however, that an admixture of 5 per cent of chrome yel- low could have such an effect. If it were added to the ocher or spar in the form of a dry powder, 20 per cent of it would not produce the same drying power as this way with 5 per cent precipitated in the wet state.— Farben Zeitung.

Betrayal of the Artificial Indigo Secrets.—Although the production of artificial indigo by means of phthalic acid is known from the patent specifications, the wholesale manufacture naturally indicates many a knack which the Badische Anilin- und Soda-fabrik would like to keep secret. Some time ago the man- agers of the concern became aware of the fact that there must be bribed traitors among their employes, for a Dr. Leirnstein in London was able to relate in a lecture various things which the factory did not sare to have blazed abroad. They sent detectives to London, who succeeded in unmasking a paint dealer, named Kumpf, and two factory hands at Bockenheim, who did a lucrative business in betraying such secrets. Kumpf was sentenced to imprisonment for one year, while the workmen received three months each.— Farben Zeitung.

Production of Non-Poisonous Colors for Wooden Toys.—(1) First dissolve 10 kilos of carmine in a cast-iron kettle (enameled inside) in 20 kilos of spirit of sal-ammoniac of 0.930 specific gravity, then add 100 kilos of glycerine of 28 degrees B. and stir, replacing the evaporated water at 40 to 60 degrees C. until the slightest traces of ammonia have disappeared; heat- ing is done by means of a lead coil. Finally dilute with 900 kilos of water. Thus a faultless dye of bril- liant luster is obtained. The greatest care has to be taken, however, that the glycerine be pure, free from formic acid, otherwise the solution will become un- sightly after a while.

(2) In a wooden vat well covered with a lid and holding about 1,200 liters, pour 20 kilos of spirit of sal-ammoniac over 10 kilos of carmine as stated under (1), stirring frequently. After about 6 hours, dilute at intervals of half an hour each time, with 200 liters of water, adding altogether 1,000 liters. Next stir in finely powdered tartar entered through a sieve and filter after two hours. The color is very handsome. Filled in bottles, it will keep only if the bottles are filled up to the cork.

In open or half-filled bottles the color acquires a tinge of violet, after two or three weeks. The colors used for coloring metallic articles, should be prepared with quick-drying linseed oil varnish instead of water.— Seifensieder Zeitung.

To Get the Tin Off Tinned Ironware.—Bergmann has taken out a patent in Sweden for recovering of the tin from tinned ironware in the specifications of which the process is thus outlined: The articles to be stripped of tin are brought into a container whose walls consist of a metal more electro-positive than tin —for instance, iron. The container is then filled with a lye consisting of some alkaline hydroxide, and a de- polarizer is connected. An electrical current is set up and continues until the lye becomes saturated with a stannic alkali. When this occurs, the tin is precipi- tated by the addition of stannous carbonate and brought into solution by appropriate acids, from which it is recovered electrolytically in solid metallic plates,

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TRADE SUGGESTIONS FROM UNITED STATES CONSULS.

Milk Flour in Sweden.*—1I give below translation of an article lately published in a Swedish newspaper:

“Dr. Martin Ekenberg’s invention was last Thurs- day afternoon exhibited to representatives of the press in the factory of Birger Jarlsgatan owned by the com- pany which will utilize the invention.

‘By the assistance of the exsiccator, skimmed milk is transformed into a highly soluble powder, which, dissolved at a temperature of 60 deg. to 70 deg. Cc. above zero in a proper quantity of water, gives a solution with the same taste, smell, and other quali- ties as common milk. The flour, or powder, can be easily transported and can be kept a long time without being spoiled.

The invention is considered to be of great import- ance for utilizing skimmed milk, which can be kept sweet only a very short time and can not be trans- ported long distances, but still has considerable ali- mentary value. The yearly output of skimmed milk from our dairies amounts to 600,000,000 liters (158,- 520,000 gallons), according to the statistics of the De- partment of Agriculture. This milk may yield a quan- ti y of milk flour of the same market value as the total export of butter.

The price of a large exsiccator, which evaporates

00 liters (528 gallons) of skimmed milk in ten hours—such a one has since last December been near- |. every day in operation with good results—will cost 1.000 to 5,000 kronor ($1,072 to $1,340). At the pres- ent time, such apparatus are being built for ten dairies, nd inquiries about the apparatus are nearly every

y received from interested persons in Sweden and ioreign countries, among whom Americans are promin- ent.

{t is further reported that the evaporation takes

ace at such a temperature that a person without

irning his hand can put the same on the apparatus hile it is working, and that the manufacture of the nest kind of milk flour is done in vacuum, so that the

r can not act unfavorably upon the milk under the rocess.—Robert S. S. Bergh, Consul at Gothenburg.

Hematite Mining in Spain.—Within the last year, n industry of much importance to American paint 1anufacturers and dealers has spring into existence n Malaga. A rich vein of oxide of iron ore—valuable hiefly for the manufacture of red paint for structural ronwork—has been discovered near the city of Jaen, in he province of that name, about 85 miles from Malaga. ompania Mineralurgica, the firm owning and operat- ng the mine, has established a plant on the outskirts f this city, where the ore is refined and prepared for xport.

The owners claim that this deposit is the only one »f consequence in Spain, a small mine near Santander being its sole rival. The ore is known as hematite, or sesquioxide, and those interested claim that it possesses a durability of color and the other properties necessary for the manufacture of red paint not ex- celled, if equaled, by the production of any other mines in the world.

The ore is shipped both in its crude state and refined, ready for mixing with oil.

Levigation is effected by submitting the crude ore to the process of grinding by stone crushers. It is then forced through filters of purified water and finally dried in kilns. The result is a fine red powder, which, mixed with a trifle more than 10 per cent of linseed oil, produces paint ready for use. Iron struc- tural work of all kinds is usually protected by a coating of this paint.

Additional interest seems to attach to the industry, in view of the marked decrease—of 31 per cent—in the production of hematite in the United States in 1901. This fact has encouraged local exporters to renew their efforts to establish in America a firm market for their product, and all signs indicate that they are meeting with success.

According to published reports, the price in 1901 for the American ore was $12.87 per short ton Last year, the Malaga product was invoiced here at 50 pesetas (approximately $6.80 in United States gold) per short ton of crude ore, and at exactly double that price for the levigated or prepared material.

This article was the only new product that ap- peared on last year’s list of exports from Malaga to the United States, and at this writing 400 bags of crude ore are awaiting shipment to New York. This will be the largest single shipment since the opening of the mines, about a year ago. At present, however, the ore finds its largest market in England.—D. R. Birch, Consul at Malaga.

Bicycles in China.—The use of bicycles by the Chinese is increasing notably and the possibilities of the market are limited only by the abilities of the China- men to purchase.

A special study of the character of bicycles suited to this country will greatly increase the sale. In North China men travel extensively, and they would use the bicycle much more if it were brought within their means. The roads are somewhat rough, and a substantial vehicle is required to traverse them. The Chinaman is not a great mechanic and has little ingen- uity, and wheels for his use should not be delicate or require much in way of repairs. On account of their manner of dress they generally prefer wheels designed for ladies.

Strength, durability, and cheapness, rather than lightness and comfort, should be the main features of bicycles designed for this market. A Chinaman will sit all day on horseback or in a cart in a position that would be simply unbearable for a foreigner. The peo- ple here do not want to pay for luxury.

The following suggestions by an experienced bicycle rider in China are worth careful study by manufac- turers:

The modern bicycle has three great disadvantages on Chinese roads, at least in the north: (1) The pneu- matic tire is subject to puncture and is hard to repair; (2) the pedals are hung too low and strike obstacles,

SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT, No.

such as stones and rough ground; (3) the chain gets full of grit, and is annoying in many ways.

The last item is eliminated in the chainless wheels, but this excellent device is as yet rarely met with in China. The American “Columbia Chainless” is a great advance, and with the cushion frame could be ridden comfortably with solid tires; but its excessively low pedals make it an impracticable mount for rough roads. Some German wheels have the advantage of higher pedals. What is needed for China is embodied in the following specification, and the manufacturer who is bold enough to turn out a strong and plain bicycle along these lines will sell it by the thousand:

1. Chainless, dustproof gearing. If chain be prefer- able, protect against dust.

2. Pedals clearing the ground by at least 6 inches.

3. Cushion frame, with compensating device to equal- ize pedal reach.

4. Solid or other non-puncturable tires.

5. Extra-thick spokes, with strong threads.

Let such a bicycle have the following accessories included in the price: Necessary tools for all nuts and screws, bell, frame luggage carrier, bar bundle carrier, and brake of simple construction.

Steel rims are liable to rust, and wood rims may warp from excessive moisture. Either kind will an- swer, though copper escapes danger.

Avoid unnecessary fancy work and nickel plating, to reduce cost. Luggage carriers are essential to the traveler in China, for he must carry his blanket and a few extra articles of clothing.

A bicycle designed especially for the use of the Chinese, with cheapness as a leading feature and the above suggestions followed, would have a good and growing market for years to come.—Henry B. Miller, Consul at Niuchwang.

Fire-Prevention Congress at London.—The Depart- ment has received from Mr. Henry White, chargé d'affaires at London, under date of February 13, 1903, notice that the International Fire-Prevention Congress will be held in London from July 7 to 10, 1903, in connection with the International Fire Exhibition.* An invitation is extended to the principal public de- partments of the United States interested in the sub- ject to be represented at this congress.

French Market for Horseshoe Nails—Norway and Sweden export annually to France horseshoe nails to a total value of several million francs. The exporters’ system of handling this business is as follows: In several of the principal cities they have established agencies, to which they send occasional large shipments of horseshoe nails on consignment. The exporters themselves prepay the freight to the port of entry, but their agents pay the customs duties and the freight to the interior for the account of the manufacturer. The consignee then sells the goods wherever he can, fre-

quently employing commercial travelers, and makes monthly or quarterly settlements with the manufac-

turer. Nails of all sizes are sent, and the advantage of this system, according to the French view, is that with the merchandise always on hand orders may be promptly filled.

Horseshoe nails command an average price of 75 francs ($14.47) per 100 kilogrammes (220 pounds). The duty is 20 francs ($3.86) per 100 kilogrammes. This would leave for the manufacturer a net price of 55 francs ($10.61) per 100 kilogrammes, out of which all charges, including the consignee’s commission, must be paid.

Certain exporting firms of Norway and Sweden have agencies and depots for merchandise at Paris, Bor- deaux, Lyons, and St. Etienne, but no two firms are represented in the same city. American horseshoe nails are undoubtedly better and less clumsy than the Swedish article and ought to command an excellent sale in France if the prices and charges above indicated can be met.

I know an active man at Angers, a big and thriving town of this consular district, who would like very much to represent an American house under the condi- tions set forth; and if the matter should interest any of our manufacturers, it would afford me pleasure to put them in communication with the agent in ques- tion.—Benjamin H. Ridgely, Consul at Nantes.

Gold Discoveries in Alaska.—Reports have reached here recently concerning a strike of rich placer dig- gings in Alaska, in the Circle City mining division, on the tributaries of the Tanana River—a district in which for several years pact American miners have made a thorough search for good placer-mining deposits with- out success urtil now. The present strike seems to be one of more than ordinary importance, and has caused quite a stampede of miners from this and other districts to the location of the new fields.

At this writing, when particulars are lacking, it is unsafe to predict too much, but the general opinion seems to confirm the belief that a large and productive placer field in American territory has at last been struck. Circle City is practically deserted as a result of the rush.

It is said that there will be a scarcity of provisions, on account of the influx. The Eagle-Circle route is reported to be the best means of reaching the Tanana from Dawson, as the trails by Forty-mile and Good- pasture are unbroken, and no supplies are available. From Forty-mile to the new diggings the distance is 160 miles.—Henry D. Saylor, Consul at Dawson City.

Demand for Steel Castings in Ireland.—From recent investigations that I have made, and from numerous inquiries received from different firms in this city, I am satisfied that a good market is open to American manufacturers who can supply steel castings of high permeability for electrical works. Castings of mag- netic steel, for field magnets of electric motors and dynamos, and magnetic steel or iron-sheet stampings, of high permeability and low hysteresis. for armature cores, are mentioned. L. B. Mollan & Co., Alexander Street West, Falls Road, electrical and mechanical en- gineers and contractors, and Millin & Co., Ultonia Works, 59 Victoria Street, are desirous that their names may be brought to the attention of steel manu-

*See Advance Sheets } Noa. 1272, 1928, and 1376 (February 2, April 23, and June 95, 1902) for previous reports on the subject,

, os a Advance Sheets No, 1439 and 1528 (September 9 and- December 2%,

1424, 22827

facturers of the United States, as they are large users of the castings described.

For the benefit of possible shippers, I will say that two lines of ocean steamers run direct from the United States to Belfast, Ireland—the Lord Line from Balti- more and Newport News and the Head Line from New Orleans.—William W. Touvelle, Consul at Belfast.

American Flour in Siberia.—The fear of competition from native sources with our flour trade in Siberia has frequently been expressed. The price of flour, Ameri- can and Manchurian, is advancing in Vladivostock. American flour, in my brief experience, has always been able to hold its own. As much again could have been sold, if certain American flour companies had been straightforward in their dealings with Siberian mer- chants. In one case, coming under my immediate notice, several hundred sacks of cornmeal were sub- stituted for a choice brand of flour. But for instances of similar character, our flour could have found a far more extensive market in Siberia.

Notwithstanding the cheapness of Manchurian wheat at Harbin—10 to 12 cents gold per pood (36.112 pounds) —and the establishment of several mills of considerable size, Manchurian flour has not yet driven out Ameri- can flour from Vladivostock, despite the greater cost and added duty, nor is there any visible diminution in the demand for our staple.

Two days ago, the steamship “Lyra,” of the new Seattle-Vladivostock Line, brought 84,000 poods (3,033,- 408 pounds) of American flour from Portland, and

several smaller orders have been placed within the month.—R. T. Greener, Commercial Agent at Vladivos- tock.

Iron for Warehouses in Barcelona.—Consul-General J. G. Lay reports from Barcelona, March 5, 1903, that the Barcelona Harbor Board of Works has asked for tenders for the supply of iron material for enlarging the warehouses on some of the quays, and also for six buoys to be placed in the harbor; the tenders to be handed in before March 28. In view of the short space of time allowed, Mr. Lay communicated with the representatives in London, England, of some of our leading engineering firms, in the hope that United States enterprise would be able to secure the contract

International Exposition at Liege-—The Department has received from the Belgian iegation, Washington, under date of March 16, 1903, notice that a universal exposition of sciences, arts, and industries will open at Liege in the month of April, 1905, and will last for at least six months. An invitation is extended to the United States to participate. Invitations to exhibitors are inclosed, which explain the system of division by national compartments, or the grouping